Student's Manual 
in Household Arts 

FOOD AND COOKERY 



MARTHA L* METCALF 



X 




Class 
Book 



T.XU5 







Copyright N°. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



STUDENT'S MANUAL 

IN 

HOUSEHOLD ARTS 

FOOD AND COOKERY 



STUDENT'S MANUAL 



IN 



HOUSEHOLD ARTS 



FOOD AND COOKERY 



BY 



MARTHA L. METCALF, B. S. 

(Columbia 'University) 



DIRECTOR OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MOORHEAD, 
MINNESOTA; FORMERLY ASSISTANT MICROSCOPIST, U. S. DEPARTMENT 
OF AGRICULTURE; INSTRUCTOR IN DOMESTIC SCIENCE, SPEYER 
SCHOOL, UNIVERSITY SETTLEMENT, NEW YORK CITY; IN- 
STRUCTOR IN DOMESTIC SCIENCE, INDIANAPOLIS 
PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
AND AUTHOR OF 
PROGRESSIVE SYSTEM OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



INDIANAPOLIS 

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION COMPANY 

1915 






COPYRIGHT, 1915 

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION COMPANY 



JAN 16 1915 



CI.A393276 

/A 4 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Preface iii 

Suggestions to Teachers v 

Bibliography vi 

General Instructions 1 

Class Discussions — Duties of Housekeepers. Rules for Cooking. Ab- 
breviations. Measures. How to Wash Dishes. 
Notes and Home Work. 

Sink 14 

Suggestions for Choosing. Its Care. 
Notes and Home Work. 

Garbage Paii 19 

Care. Garbage Consumer. 

Refrigerator 21 

Daily Care. Weekly Cleaning. Suggestions for Choosing. Notes and 
Home Work. 

Gas Range 28 

Care. Method of Lighting. 

Coal Range 31 

Care. Method of Building Fire. 

Kerosene Stove 34 

Care. Notes and Home Work. 

Sweeping and Dusting 39 

Notes and Home Work. 

EXERCISE I. 

Vegetables 45 

Class Discussions — Classification. Composition. Methods of Cooking. 
White Potato — History. Structure. Composition. Buying and Storing. 
Ways of Cooking. 
Laboratory Exercises — Baked, Boiled, Mashed and Creamed Potatoes. 
Notes and Home Work. 

EXERCISE II. 

Rice 56 

(lass Discussions — History. Preparation for Market. Classification. 

Composition. Ways of Serving. 
Laboratory Exercises —Boiled Rice. Steamed Rice. Rice with Parsley. 

Rice with Tomato Sauce. Curry Sauce. Escalloped. 
Notes and Home Work. 






TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

EXERCISE III. 

Cereal Breakfast Foods 68 

Class Discussions — Composition. Buying and Storing. Classification. 

Cooking and Digestion of Starch. Use of Double Boiler. 
Laboratory Exercises — Rolled Oats with Bananas. Cream of Wheat. 

with Raisins. Corn Meal Mush. Fried Mush. Baked Apple. 
Notes and Home Work. 

EXERCISE IV. 

Creamed Dishes 79 

Class Discussions — Sauces as to History. Sauces as to Value. 
Laboratory Exercises — Thin White Sauce, Medium White Sauce, Thick 
White Sauce. Methods of Mixing. Cream Toast. Creamed Cabbage. 
Creamed Peas. Creamed Dried Beef. Creamed Salt Codfish. 
Notes and Home Work. 

EXERCISE V. 

Cream Soups 89 

Class Discussions — Classification. General Rules for Preparation. Serving 

Soup. Value of Cream Soups. 
Laboratory Exercises — ■ Cracker Soup. Cream of Corn Soup. Potato Soup. 
Cream of Tomato Soup. Cream of Asparagus Soup. Cream of Salmon 
Soup. Croutons. Toast Fingers. Bread Sticks. 
Notes and Home Work. 

EXERCISE VI. 

The Dining Room 99 

Class Discussions — Importance. Decorations. Furniture. Floors, Daily 

Care. Weekly Cleaning. 
Laboratory Exercises — Experiments for Bacteria in Dust. 
Notes and Home Work. 

EXERCISE VII. 

Table Setting and Serving 108 

Class Discussions — Laying of Table. Serving (English, Russian, Com- 
promise ) . Suggestions for Any Manner of Serving. 
Laboratory Exercises — Serving Three-Course Luncheon, Compromise 

Style. Serving Without a Maid. 
Notes and Home Work. 

EXERCISE VIII. 

Eggs 122 

Class Discussions — Structure. Composition. Spoiling. Preservation. 

Tests for Fresh Eggs. Effects of Heat on Albumin. Practical Hints. 
Laboratory Exercises — Soft Cooked. Hard Cooked. Goldenrod. Creamed. - 

Scrambled. French Omelet. Poached Egg on Toast. 
Notes and Home Work. 

EXERCISE IX. 
Milk 134 

Class Discussions — History. Composition. Care of Milk. Pasteurization. 
Sterilization. 






TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Laboratory Exercises — Butter. Cottage Cheese No. 1. Cottage Cheese 

No. 2. Rennet Dessert. Chocolate Sauce. 
Notes and Home Work. 

EXERCISE X. 

Custards 146 

Class Discussions — Kinds. Composition. Tests for Custards. Hints in 

Making. 
Laboratory Exercises — Baked Custarl. Soft Custard. Floating Island. 

Tapioca Cream. Strawberry Custard. 
Notes and Home Work. 

EXERCISE XL 

Meat 157 

Class Discussions — Structure. Cuts of Meat. Uses of Different Cuts. 
Location of Different Cuts by Diagrams. Distinguishing Features of 
Steaks. Composition. Cooking of Meats. 
Laboratory Exercises — Pan Broiled. Hamburg. Creole Steak. Beef 

Stew. Beef Pot Roast. Vael Loaf. Broiled Bacon. Apple Sauce. 
Notes and Home Work. 

EXERCISE XII. 
Beverages. Tea, Coffee and Cocoa 177 

Class Discussions — History. Composition. Manufacture. Hints in Making. 
Laboratory Exercises — Hot Tea. Iced Tea. Boiled Coffee. Cold Water 

Coffee. Filtered Coffee. Iced Coffee. Cocoa. Chocolate. 
Notes and Home Work. 

EXERCISE XIII. 

Flour Mixtures 192 

Class Discussions — Structure. Composition. Kinds of Flour. Kinds of 
Batters. Methods of Putting Flour Mixtures Together. Batter Method. 
Baking. 
Laboratory Exercises — Griddle Cakes. Plain Muffins. Graham Muffins. 

Rice Muffins. Corn Cakes. 
Notes and Home Work. 

EXERCISE XIV. 

Leavening Agents 205 

Class Discussions — Methods of Making Batters Light. Baking Powder. 
Experiments. General Proportions of Cream of Tartar, Molasses and 
Sour Milk with Soda. 
Laboratory Exercises — Making of Baking Powder. Ginger Bread. Ginger 
Drops. Vanilla Sauce. Rolled Ginger Bread. 

Notes and Home Work. 

EXERCISE XV. 
Quick Doughs 215 

Notes and Home Work. 

Class Discussions — Dough Method of Mixing. 

Laboratory Exercises — Baking Powder Biscuits. Drop Biscuits. Egg Tea 
Rolls. Cinnamon Rolls. Cheese Biscuits. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

EXERCISE XVI. 
Bread Making 223 

Class Discussions — History. Structure of Yeast. Effect of Heat on Yeast 
Plant Experiments. Kinds of Yeast. Liquids Used. Points in Bread 
Making. Directions for Kneading. Method of Mixing. Score Card for 
Bread-making. Amount of Yeast Needed. 

Laboratory Exercises — Raised Buckwheat Cakes. Raised Muffins. Bread. 
Raisin Bread. Graham Bread. Raised Biscuits. 

Notes and Home Work. 

EXERCISE XVII. 
Cake Mixtures and Puddings 241 

Class Discussions — Kinds. Method of Mixing. Baking. Cookies. Pudd- 
ings. 

Laboratory Exercises — Feather Cake. Spice Cake. Uncooked Icing. Oat- 
flake Cookies. Eggless Cookies. Peanut Cookies. Scottish Macaroons. 
Rice Pudding. Bread Pudding. Bread and Butter Pudding. Cottage 
Pudding. Brown Betty. Hard Sauce. 

Notes and Home Work. 

EXERCISE XVIII. 
Salads 255 

Class Discussions — History. Description of Salad Plants. Food Value. 

Care of Plants. Garnishes. Points in Salad Making. 
Laboratory Exercises — Salad Dressings: French, Boiled, Cream. Salads: 
Cabbage, Potato I and II, Cucumber and Tomato, Daisy, Water Lily, 
Stuffed Egg, Salmon, Banana, Waldorf. 
Notes and Home Work. 

EXERCISE XIX. 

Ices and Ice Creams 270 

Class Discussions — Classification of Frozen Desserts. Principles of Freez- 
ing. 
Laboratory Exercises — Lemon Ice. Orange Ice. Pineapple Ice. Straw- 
berry Ice. Sherbets. Philadelphia Vanilla Ice Cream. French Vanilla 
Ice Cream. Chocolate. Strawberry and Apricot Ice Cream. Raspberry 
Mousse. Frozen Rice Pudding. 
Notes and Home Work. 

EXERCISE XX. 

Cranberries 282 

Class Discussions — History. Composition. Value. 

Laboratory Exercises — Cranberry Jelly. Cranberry Marmalade. Cran- 
berry Sauce. Cranberry Pudding. Cranberry Roly Poly. Foamy Sauce. 
Cranberry Ice. Cranberry Sherbet. 
Notes and Home Work. 

EXERCISE XXL 
Candy 290 

Class Discussions — Sugar Manufacture. Candy as a Food. Candy Mak- 
ing. Boiled Sugar Tests. Hints on Candy Making. 

Laboratory Exercises — Peanut Brittle. Butter Scotch. Molasses Taffy. 
Popcorn Balls. Panocha. Stuffed Dates. Uncooked Fondant. 

Notes and Home Work. 






Ill 



PREFACE 



IT has been our purpose to make the work in Household Arts 
pleasant and profitable for the girl while in school as well 

as when she leaves school. If this plan is carried out, she 
will be able to take with her into the home the results of her 
experience. It is possible to make the work so vital and so 
closely connected with the work of the home that the girl will 
not count the time spent in school as lost. Instead she will con- 
sider her school work to be a part of a well organized whole. 

During the first year's work in food and cookery, the plan 
is to give a training in manipulation and a good working knowl- 
edge of the composition of food and the principles of cookery. 
The sequence of- lessons has been based on food principles. At 
first sight this may seem merely the conventional course of les- 
sons in cookery. However, it has been planned to make the 
topics taken up in the course at school fit into the home interests 
in a natural, helpful, logical way. 

This book contains about one hundred twenty tested recipes 
besides many suggestions for varying these. The directions for 



IV 



working have been so simplified that even the very young be- 
ginner will have no difficulty in following them. 

Interesting and valuable facts concerning the history, man- 
ufacture, and commercial value of each of the principal food 
products have been briefly told. Each exercise contains some 
suggestions and instructions in housewifery or household man- 
agement. 

MARTHA L. METCALF. 
January, 1915. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

The exercises in this book may be followed in the order in 
which they are given or they may be rearranged to suit the 
need of each particular class. If the lesson on Eggs should 
come at a time when eggs are particularly high in your locality, 
it would be better to postpone those lessons until prices were 
lower. The lessons on the Care of the Dining Room and on 
Table Setting and Serving may be given at any time. The 
Cranberry exercise is intended for a Thanksgiving lesson and 
the work on Candy should precede the Christmas holidays. 

An opportunity is given at the close of each exercise in this 
course for the girl to state in brief form the results of her work. 
This feature should be carefully done because it will serve as an 
index to the amount of thinking the student is doing while she 
works. 

At the close of each exercise a number of questions and 
suggestions are given. These are intended to stimulate the 
student to put intelligence back of the doing. Several recita- 
tions in which these questions form the basis for discussions may 
follow each exercise. 

Definite credit should be given for all work in Household 
Arts done at home. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

The following references will be found useful to both 
teachers and students: — 

" Foods and Household Management," Kinne and Cooley. 

"Principles of Cookery," Anna M. Barrows. 

"A Home Science Cook Book," Lincoln and Barrows. 

' ' The Boston Cooking School Cook Book, ' ' Fannie Farmer. 

"Elements of the Theory and Practice of Cookery," Wil- 
liams and Fisher. 

"The Up-to-Date Waitress," J. McK. Hill. 

■ • How the World Is Fed, ' ' Carpenter. 

"Food Products," Sherman. 

t ' The World 's Commercial Products, ' ' Freeman and 
Chandler. 

"Bacteria, Yeasts and Molds in the Home," Conn. 

' ' Household Bacteriology, ' ' Buchanan. 

"Food and Dietetics," Norton. 

"Food and Dietetics," Hutchison. - 

"Household Physics," Lynde. 

"Good Cheer," Hackwood. 

"Spirit of Cookery," Thudichum. 

' ' Household Physic, ' ' Butler. 

"Foods and Sanitation," Forster and Weigley. 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 

For the first lesson in a beginning course, it would be well 
to study with the children. 

1. The name, use and arrangement of all the utensils in 
the individual desks. (Below is a diagram suggesting a con- 
venient arrangement.) Have a definite place for each article 
and insist on its being kept there. 

2. The care of the stove and the lighting of the fire. 

3. The use and care of the refrigerator. 

4. The care of the sink and garbage can. 

5. The sweeping and dusting of the kitchen. 

6. Rules for working. 

There should be no cooking during the first lesson. 




A. custard cup 

B. white plate 

C. utensil plate 

D. small white bowl 

E. large white bowl 

F. sauce pan 

G. measuring cup ( l / 3 ) 
H. measuring cup (^] 
I. fork 

J. vegetable knife 



K- case knife 

L. spatula 

M. teaspoon 

N. tablespoon 

0. wooden spoon 

P. salt jar 

Q. biscuit cutter 

R. Dover egg beater 

S. strainer 



2 FOOD AND COOKERY 

At the beginning of introductory lesson number two, each 
child or each two children might prepare an apple for baking. 
While the apples are baking the time could be used 

1. In learning the abbreviations. 

2. In measuring different food materials, 

3. In learning how to wash dishes. 

(Spend very little time discussing the apple as that will 
come in later lessons on fruit.) 

The general work of the kitchen, such as putting away 
supplies, cleaning the sink and stove, emptying and washing 
the garbage pail, can be arranged as the teacher thinks best. 
It is usually done by appointing one or more girls as house- 
keepers each lesson. The following "Duties of Housekeepers" 
are merely suggestions, they may be varied to suit the needs 
of the individual kitchen. 

DUTIES OF HOUSEKEEPERS. 
Housekeeper No. 1. 

1. While the rest of the girls are washing their hands, 
dust the desk, ice box and cupboards, then wash out the dust 
cloth and hang on rack to dry. 

2. When through cooking, put away supplies. 

3. Divide supply dishes evenly among the rest of the class 
to wash. Do not give any supply dishes to the two who are 
washing housekeeper's dishes. 

4. Clean stove. 

a. Wipe out oven. 

b. Wipe top of stove. 

c. Empty teakettle and wash the outside. 

d. Clean trav under burners. 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 3 

5. Wash the supply table. 

6. Brush floor around stove and table. 

7. Have work inspected before leaving the room. 

Housekeeper No. 2. 

1. When all have washed their hands, wipe wash basins 
and hang them up. Wipe drain boards and hang up sink cloths. 

2. When through cooking, empty pan under ice box. 

3. Wash the utensils in sink and the cover to garbage can. 

4. Ask the girl sitting next to you to help you empty the 
garbage can. 

5. Wash garbage can with small mop, then rinse with hot 
water. Wash out mop and hang it up. 

6. Wash back of sink, polish faucets with dry cloth, wash 
the drain board, then the sink. 

7. Brush floor around the sink and garbage -can, using 
mop if necessary. 

8. After all the dishwater has been emptied, wipe sink 
and strainer and hang up cloth. 

9. Have work inspected before leaving the room. 

Abbreviations. 



T. stands for tablespoon. 


t. 


' " teaspoon. 


C. 


' " cupful. 


E. 


' i ' rounding. 


spk. ' 


' ' ' speck. 


hr. 6 


' ' ' hour. 


lb. 


' " pound. 


pt. 


' " pint. 


qt. 


1 ' ' quart. 


oz. ' 


• ' ' ounce. 



FOOD AND COOKERY 



Measures. 



3 t.=l T. 

16 T.=l C. 
2 gills==l C. 
2 C.=l pt. 
2 pt.=l qt. 

4 qt.=l gal. 
1 pk. 



2 gal.: 



2 C. sugar=l lb. 
2 C. butter=l lb. 

1 beaten egg=3 T. (!,). 
8 large eggs=l lb. 

2 C. chopped meat=l lb. 
4 C. ground coffee=l lb. 
2 C. rice=l lb. 



4 C. flour=l lb. 



\> % 



All materials are measured level. The cup or spoon is filled 
heaping full, then leveled with a case knife. Flour is measured 
after sifting. In measuring butter or lard, scrape the surplus 
from the knife onto the back of the spoon, then pick it up with 
the tip of the knife and drop it into the supply dish. Do not 
scrape the knife on the edge of the dish. 




HALVES 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 




THIRDS 



a. A spoonful of any solid material is divided into halves 
lengthwise of the spoon. 

b. It is divided into quarters by a second division at 
right angles to the first, with this cross division somewhat near- 
er to the handle than to the point of the spoon. 

c. A spoonful is divided into thirds crosswise. 



FOOD AND COOKERY 
LESSON PERIOD. 




Before the class arrives, the supplies for that lesson should 
be neatly arranged in supply dishes on a table in the front of 
the room and covered with a clean cloth. If the class is large 
it would be better to pass the supply dishes from one pupil to 
the next, allowing each to measure the amount she would need 
for the lesson. In a small class the pupils might be allowed to 
come to the table and help themselves. Occasionally let the 
housekeepers order the supplies and put them out for the class. 

After the cooking lesson is over the girls should arrange 
the food properly for serving and sit down quietly and eat it. 
The dishes should then be piled up ready to be washed. Two 
girls should work together; the uneven numbers should wash 
the dishes one week and the even numbers dry them. The next 
week they should reverse the work. The one who washes the 
dishes should scrub the tables and wash out the dishcloth, the 
one who drys them should put the dishes away and wash out 
the dish-towels. 

Inspect all towels and dishpans before they are hung up 
and examine the desks before the class leaves the room to see 
that the work is properly done. 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 7 

Ways of Presenting a Lesson. 

1. The lesson may be assigned for study the day before 
it is to be taught. The subject matter can then be discussed 
when the girls come to class before beginning the practical 
work. Or 

2. The recipe may be read at the beginning of the lesson. 
After discussing the reasons for each step, the girls may begin 
work, keeping recipes before them. Or 

3. The list of ingredients may be put on the board and 
the method of preparation brought out by the teacher by means 
of questions and suggestions. After all the points in the method 
have been made clear and have been summarized by the class, 
the children should be able to prepare the dish without any 
further directions. 

The last method is preferable during the first year. Either 
of the other two methods may be profitably used in the second 
year. 

It will awaken interest in the lesson to have the prepared 
dish attractively arranged, ready to show the pupils at the 
beginning of the lesson. It will also be very helpful occasionally 
to demonstrate the preparation of the dish during the discus- 
sion of the method. 

Rules For Working. 

1. Before beginning to cook, wash the hands with soap and 
water; scrub the finger nails and clean them with a wooden 
toothpick. Wash the hands whenever anything has been 
handled that is not clean. 

2. Have the hair so fastened that no hairs will fall into 
the food. Do not touch the hair nor face while cooking. 

3. Do not wear rings nor bracelets, as dirt collects in the 
crevices and gets into the food. 



8 FOOD AND COOKERY 

4. Dress as simply and neatly as possible in the kitchen. 
Wear a wash dress when possible and always wear an apron. 

5. Never dry dishes with anything bnt a dish towel. 

6. Always nse a holder or oven cloth in handling hot 
utensils. 

7. Never nse the mixing spoon to taste the food that you 
are cooking; take up a little food with the mixing spoon and put 
it in a teaspoon. 

8. See that the fire is ready just when needed. 

9. Before beginning work collect all necessary utensils, 
provide a plate on which to lay soiled knives and spoons and 
collect and measure all materials needed. 

10. Save work by saving dishes; measure dry ingredients 
first, then liquids, then fats, and you will need to use only one 
spoon or cup. 

11. Clean up as you work; soak dishes as soon as emptied. 

12. Tin dishes and iron spoons will turn the food dark. 
Use earthen or granite dishes and wooden mixing spoons. 

13. Do not let any acid stand in a tin vessel. 

14. Rinse all milk dishes first with cold water, then wash 
with hot, soapy water. 

15. All milk dishes should be thoroughly scalded every 
day. 

16. Wash egg beaters in cold water, dry and put away at 
once. Do not tret the black part of a Dover egg beater, as it is 
impossible to dry it except in a warming oven. 

17. Do not stand the teakettle in the sink. 

18. Place saucepans with handles turned to the right, not 
over the fire. 

19. In scouring faucets be careful to keep the scouring brick 
out of the joints. The smallest bit will soon wear out the faucet 
and cause it to leak. 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 9 

20. Read your recipe and think before you work; work 
quickly, quietly and carefully. Never ask a question that you 
can answer yourself. 

How to Wash Dishes. 

1. Collect each kind and put it by itself; scrape bits of 
food from dishes before washing and wipe greasy dishes with 
soft paper. 

2. Have pan of very hot, soapy water; wash cleanest dishes 
first, as glass, silver, china, tin, etc. 

3. Rinse in clean, hot water arid dry on clean, dry towels. 
A more sanitary way of rinsing and drying dishes is to 

place them, after washing, on edge in a drying rack, then pour 
clean, hot water over them and let them stand. The hot water 
rinses away all the soapy dishwater and the heat causes the 
dishes to dry without the use of a towel. With care, this method 
will save time and the dishes will be cleaner than even a clean 
towel can make them. Each dish should be inspected before it- 
is put away. 

4. When dishes are all washed, get clean water and scrub 
board and table, using scrubbing brush and scouring brick or 
powder. Scrub with the grain of the wood. 

5. Wash off the suds; rinse and wring cloth and wipe the 
board as dry as possible. Be sure to wash and dry the edges of 
the table. 

6. Wash dish towels and dish cloth in hot, soapy water; 
rinse in hot water and hang straight and even in the sun to dry. 

7. Empty teakettle, clean stove, and brush floor around 
stove and table. 

Note. — All steel knives and forks should be scoured every time 
they are used. 



10 FOOD AND COOKERY 

NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 11 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

1. Get pictures of different kinds of dish racks to paste in 
your book. 

2. Could any of these be adapted to use in your own home? 

3. Why is a spoonful of solid material divided lengthwise 
into halves? Explain the difference in length of the divisions 
into thirds, into quarters. 






12 FOOD AND COOKERY 

READING NOTES. 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 13 

HOME WORK. 

Study the dish-washing question at home. See if you can 
make your work easier by a little planning. 

Keep a record of the length of time it takes you to wash 
the dinner dishes each day for a week. Be sure your work is 
done equally well each time. 



14 



POOD AND COOKERY 



THE SINK. 




1. Sink. 

2. Trap. 

3. Waste Pipe. 

4. Drain Screw. 

5. House Drain. 

6. Sewer. 

7. Floor Level. 

8. House Wall. 
Water Feed Pipe. 

10. Faucets. 

11. Drain Board. 



Suggestions for Choosing a Sink. 

1. A white enameled, iron sink is the best. The copper 
sink is very durable and will not chip the dishes handled in it 
as easily as will the iron or the enameled iron sink. However 
the copper sink is very expensive and hard to keep clean. 

2. Be sure the sink is equipped with a good trap, with 
nickel-plated faucets and drain. 

3. The space below the sink should never be enclosed. 
It only makes a harboring place for water bugs and bacteria. 

4. Have the sink so high that one can work at it comfort- 
ably. 

5. If the sink is long enough, it will be more sanitary to 
have a removable drain-board placed inside the sink. If not, 
a drain-board may be fastened at one end or at each end of the 
sink. 



GENEEAL INSTRUCTIONS 15 

PICTURES OF GOOD SINKS. 



16 FOOD AND COOKERY 

Daily Care. 

1. Keep the sink always free from scraps. Neglect causes 
bad odors, attracts water bugs and roaches, and sometimes pro- 
duces disease. 

2. After pouring very greasy water down the waste pipe, 
pour down boiling water that the grease may not cool and settle 
on the sides of the waste pipe and the trap and clog them. Re- 
member that sink, waste and drain pipes are intended for the 
passage of water only, not for bits of paper, burnt match, sand, 
food, etc. Slight carelessness in this respect may lead to a large 
plumber's bill. Pour all water through the sink strainer, then 
empty the strainer into the garbage can. 

3. After washing the dishes, wash strainer, soap-dish and 
other sink utensils; wash the backboard, drainboards and basin 
of the sink with scrubbing brush and some scouring brick or 
powder. Polish faucets with dry, soft cloth. Once a week pour 
hot sal soda solution down the drain pipe. Clean carefully 
between the end of the drainboard and the sink each time you 
wash dishes so that dirt and bacteria will not collect there. 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 17 

NOTES ON LABOKATOKY WORK. 



18 FOOD AND COOKERY 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

How would it be possible to have a sink and drain with 
water supply in your house if you lived in the country or in a 
small town not equipped with sewers and city water systems ? 

Send for catalogs of windmills, forcepumps, etc. 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 



19 



GARBAGE PAIL. 





Daily Care. 

Wash inside and outside of pail every day, using a dish 
mop. Stand the pail in the sun for a while if possible. 

A plan followed in some localities is to fit the garbage can 
with a strong paper bag into which the garbage is emptied. 
This keeps the can from becoming soiled and aids the collector 
in emptying the garbage. All water should be drained from 
the garbage before it is put into the can. 

A better way is to have no garbage pail, but burn the garb- 
age every day. Have a bright fire in the stove and keep all the 
drafts open until the garbage is consumed. 



20 



FOOD AND COOKERY 



GARBAGE CONSUMER. 




A gas garbage burner is sometimes used. There is no odor 
from it if it is connected with the flue. It occupies little space 
and does not use much gas. 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 
THE REFRIGERATOR. 



21 




Daily Care. 

1. Have perfect order at all times. 

2. See that no food remains in refrigerator long enough 
to spoil. 

3. Empty drain pan once a day. 

4. Do not put food away in fine china dishes nor wrapped 
in paper. 



22 FOOD AND COOKERY 

5. Keep all dishes containing milk or butter carefully cov- 
ered. These foods absorb odors and flavors readily. 

6. See that the ice is rinsed before it is put into the ice 
compartment. 

Weekly Cleaning. 

1. Clean refrigerator at least once a week thoroughly. 

2. Wash shelves and ice rack with hot soap suds and rinse 
in clean, hot water. Dry in the sun if possible. 

3. Wash inside of refrigerator in the same way. Clean 
grooves and corners with a cloth on a wooden skewer. 

4. Eemove drain pipe and wash it or run a wire with a 
cloth on it down the pipe. Pour hot sal soda solution through 
the drain pipe and trap. 

5 Wipe the refrigerator dry and let it remain open for 
an hour before putting food in it. 

Suggestions for Selecting a Refrigerator. 

1. Have the refrigerator large enough, for a small piece 
of ice melts much more rapidly than a large one. 

2. Have the refrigerator high enough from the floor to 
sweep under it. 

3. A white enameled or porcelain-lined refrigerator is 
more easily kept clean than one lined with zinc. 



L 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 23 

PICTURES OF GOOD REFRIGERATORS. 






24 



FOOD AND COOKERY 




Substitutes for Refrigerators. 

A window-box made of aluminum or a water-tight wood 
box is a convenience when there is no ice supply. It should 
be fastened by strong brackets outside the window with a door 
opening toward the window. There should be an opening in each 
end, covered with screen wire to give free circulation of air. 

A cupboard, operated like a dumb-waiter that can be raised 
and lowered from the kitchen to cellar, will save many steps 
when the only cool place for perishable foods is the cellar. 




GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 25 

NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 



26 FOOD AND COOKERY 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

1. Is it possible for a farmer to have a supply of ice for the 
summer 1 

2. Make a list of foods that you would keep in a refriger- 
ator. 

3. Make a list of perishable foods that you would not keep 
ir. a refrigerator. 

4. What would you do with the foods in your second list? 






GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 27 

READING NOTES. 

Reference: Household Physics — Lynde. 



28 



FOOD AND COOKERY 
GAS RANGE. 




Daily Care. 

1. Keep air holes free from dirt. 

2. Remove and wash tray under burners every day. 

3. Wipe top of stove with damp cloth or with a few drops 
of kerosene on a cloth. 

4. If burners become clogged, remove them and wash in 
clean, warm water. 

5. Brush out oven and wipe with damp cloth. Aluminum 
paint applied to the inside of the oven two or three times a year 
will prevent its rusting and will make the inside of the oven 
lighter. 

A hood is sometimes hung over the gas range. A pipe con- 
nects this with the flue. This is to carry away the odors from the 
gas or from the cooking. It is a worth-while addition but not 
absolutely necessary. 

Whenever possible get a stove with the oven above or at 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 29 

the side of the top-burners. This does away with stooping when 
looking into the oven. 

Directions for Lighting. 

1. Top burners: Open cock wide, light match and apply it. 
If gas burns with a yellow flame and makes a roaring noise, it is 
burning in the mixer. Turn it off at once, then turn it on, let the 
gas flow for a second and relight it. The yellow flame smokes 
and wastes gas and is not as hot as a blue flame. 

2. Oven burners: Open oven doors. Open the pilot cock and 
apply match. Turn on first one oven burner, then the other; 
when both are burning with blue flame, turn off the pilot. 

If the oven does not light with a pilot, turn on oven coc> 
and apply match to the opening in the front of the oven. 

Never stand ivith face in front of the oven door token lighting 
the oven. 

Leave oven door open for fifteen minutes after the fire is 
turned out. 



39 FOOD AND COOKERY 

PICTURES OF GAS RANGES. 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 



31 



COAL RANGE. 





X JL 

DIAGRAMS OF RANGE. 

I, with oven damper open. II, with oven clamper closed. A, 
ash pan. F, firebox. 0, oven. R, reservoir. P, stove-pipe. C, 
check draft. FD, front draft. OD, oven damper. CD, chimney 
damper. RD, reservoir damper. Arrows show direction of the 
currents of hot air. 

Daily Care. 



1. 

9 



See that ash pan is emptied once a day. 
Every morning as soon as fire is lighted, rnb stove with 
blacking and polish with brnsh or soft cloth. 

3. See that space around oven is kept free from soot and 
ashes. 

4. See that reservoir is kept filled loith water. 

Building Coal Fire. 

1. Clear firebox of ashes and empty ash pan. 

2. Put layer of loosely twisted paper in bottom of firebox 

3. On this lay small pieces of soft wood crosswise. 



32 FOOD AND COOKERY 

4. Put a layer of small coal on top of wood, then a layer of 
larger coal. 

5. Have fuel loosely arranged so as to admit free passage 
of air through it. 

6. Cover top of range, close check draft and open front, 
oven and chimney dampers. 

7. Apply lighted match through the grate to the paper in 
the bottom of the firebox. 

8. When the wood is all ablaze, more coal may be added. 
Do not keep firebox more than three-fourths full of coal. 

9. When the fire is burning nicely, the front damper may 
be closed and chimney damper partly closed. 

10. To heat the oven — close check draft and oven damper; 
partially close chimney damper and partially open front damper. 

11. To check fire — open check draft, close all dampers, and 
if fire is still too hot, raise lids on top of stove. 

12. To heat reservoir — close reservoir damper. 

13. Eanges differ as to arrangement of oven and chimney 
dampers. Study carefully the one you are to use before building 
fire. 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 33 

PICTURES OF COAL RANGES. 



34 



FOOD AND COOKERY 
KEROSENE STOVE. 




Kerosene is a safe, economical fuel if carefully used in a good 
stove. The bine flame stove with a wick-burner is perhaps the 
best type for general use. 

The stove must be kept absolutely clean or there will be a 
disagreeable odor from the burning kerosene. The wicks should 
be turned low when not in use, otherwise the oil will draw up 
through the wick and spread in a thin film over the stove. The 
top of the stove should be washed every day and the burners 
removed frequently and boiled in sal soda solution. 

When the wicks become clogged and dirty they should be 
renewed. 

At twenty cents a gallon for kerosene, one blue-flame burner 
will cost one and one-third cents per hour. 






GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 35 

NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 



36 FOOD AND COOKERY 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

1. How long does it take to get the oven of the coal range 
hot enough to bake bread? Keep account of the time from the 
moment yon start to bnild the fire nntil the oven has reached 
the right temperature. 

2. What would the kindling and coal cost to heat the oven 
and keep it at that temperature one hour or long enough to bake 
bread? 

3. Try both experiments with the gas range or the kerosene 
stove. If turned on full, the gas oven will use about forty feet 
of gas per hour. 

4. Make a list of prices of coal in your locality. 

5. Is hard or soft coal used more generally? Why? 






GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 37 

BEADING NOTES. 

Read Chapter III of Foods and Household Management, 
Kinne & Cooley. 



38 FOOD AND COOKERY 

HOME WORK. 

Keep a record of your care of the range' at home. Does 
your speed and skill increase with practice 1 






GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 39 

SWEEPING AND DUSTING. 

1. Before beginning to sweep, see that no food is left uncovered 
in the room. 

2. Open the windows and close the doors. 

3. Dust and remove chairs, etc. Cover such articles as 
cannot be taken from the room. 

4. Wet the broom in a solution of borax and water. Do not 
use tea leaves or corn meal. Tea leaves may leave a stain and 
corn meal is apt to attract water bugs. Small pieces of news- 
paper well dampened and sprinkled on the floor may be used. 

5. Sweep from the edges of the room towards the center. 

6. Sweep with short strokes, keeping the broom close to 
the floor. This keeps the dust from flying. If the broom is 
properly held it will be impossible to lift it at the end of each 
stroke and set the dust flying. (See illustrations.) 

7. When the dust has been gathered at one spot, take it 
up with a short broom and dustpan. 

8. Always sweep a floor before washing or scrubbing it. 

9. After sweeping a room, dust the woodwork and furni- 
ture, bring in the articles that were taken out, set the room in 
order and partly close the windows. 

10. Always use a damp duster, which will collect and hold 
the dust, instead of merely moving it from place to place as a 
dry duster or feather duster will do. When the work is com- 
pleted, wash the duster and so get rid of the dust. 

11. New brooms may be soaked in strong, hot salt water 
before using, to toughen the bristles and make the brooms last 
longer. 



40 



FOOD AND COOKERY 






CORRECT WAY. 



INCORRECT WAY. 




GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 41 

NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 



42 FOOD AND COOKERY 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

1. What is the value derived from doing things in an order- 
ly way? 

2. Why should the state have the right to demand that 
things be kept clean and sanitary in and about the home? 

3. What part does good, wholesome food and good cooking- 
play in the work which one does? 

4. Why should we be careful in working with fire? Does 
your state have any laws concerning the prevention of fires ? 

5. Take a broom and make a few strokes on the floor. What 
sense organ is affected ? What is the danger in such sweeping ? 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 43 

READING NOTES. 

Suggested Topics. 

Broom industry. 

Bacteria, yeasts and molds in the home. 

Vacuum cleaners and carpet sweepers. 



44 FOOD AND COOKERY 

HOME WORK. 



VEGETABLES 
EXERCISE I. 



45 




VEGETABLES. 

Classification. 

From the Standpoint of Nutrition. 

Green vegetables — lettuce, spinach, cabbage, onions, etc. — 

non-nutritive. 
Starchy vegetables — potatoes, beans, peas, lentils, etc.-- 

nutritive. 

From the Standpoint of Cookery. 

Strong juiced — onions, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, turnips. 
Sweet juiced — peas, beans, carrots, spinach, squash, etc. 

Composition. 

Vegetables are composed chiefly of cellulose or woody fiber, 
water, starch, mineral matter and small amounts of protein and 
sugar. 



46 FOOD AND COOKERY 

The green vegetables contain but little starch, sugar or pro- 
tein, their chief value in the diet being their mineral salts, which 
tend to keep the blood in an alkaline condition. 

The beans, peas, and lentils contain a large amount of pro- 
tein as well as starch. 

General Rules for Cooking. 

1. Wash thoroughly. Pare, peel or scrape according to 
the vegetable, e. g., potatoes are pared, tomatoes are peeled, and 
parsnips scraped. 

2. Put on to cook in boiling water. Boil gently until tender. 
Salt when half done. 

3. Sweet juiced vegetables should be cooked in just water 
enough to cover, with the exception of greens, which, being 
composed largely of water, require a much smaller amount. 

4. Strong juiced vegetables should be cooked in a large 
amount of water and when half done should be put into fresh 
boiling water. By this method we lose some of the valuable 
mineral salts, but this loss is warranted by the improved 
flavor. 

5. If strong juiced vegetables are cooked uncovered so 
that the steam will escape gradually, the odor will be less offen- 
sive. 

Points to Be Considered in Choosing the Method of Cooking 
Vegetables. 

f Water ) 

^determine method. 
■ . Amount of fiber j 

1. Composition^ 

! Starch ") 

determine temperature. 



Protein 



r 






WHITE POTATO 47 

2. Length of time to cook. 

3. Flavor. 

4. Appetizing appearance. 

WHITE POTATO. 

History. 

The white potato is believed to be a native of Chili. It 
was introduced into England from America in the latter part 
of the sixteenth century. It belongs to the deadly nightshade 
family and for many years was believed to be poisonous. Now 
it ranks next to breadstuffs in importance as a food crop in the 
western countries. The small amount of poison it contains is 
driven off in cooking. In 1909 the potato crop in the United 
States alone was valued at $206,545,000, there being a produc- 
tion of 376,534,000 bushels. 

Structure. 

The frame work of the potato is woody fiber, which divides 
the potato into little rooms or cells of various shapes and sizes. 
These cells are filled with water in which are dissolved the 
soluble proteins, mineral matter, and soluble carbohydrates. 
The insoluble starch grains are also stored away in these cells. 
The greater part of the mineral matter and protein lies close 
to the skin of the potato. 



48 



FOOD AND COOKERY 




A — Cells of a potato showing starch grains. 

B — Cells of a potato showing partly cooked starch. 

C — Cells of a potato showing thoroughly cooked starch. 



Composition. (Edible portion.) 

Water 78.3%. 

Starch 18.0%,. the chief food in the potato. 

Fat .1%. 

Protein 2.2%. 

Minerals 1.0%, aid digestion, help to keep blood alkaline. 

Fiber .4%, too hard and tough to be digested. 



WHITE POTATO 



49 



FA J 
FIBER 

MINERAL 

PXoreux 




A pared potato loses one-fourth its mineral, most of its 
protein and some of its starch in boiling. 

Boiled without paring it loses much less. 

Baked it loses none. 

Potatoes put on to cook in cold water lose two times as 
much protein and are not as mealy as when they are put direct- 
ly into boiling water. 

Pared potatoes turn brown on being exposed to the air, 
due to the action of substances called enzymes naturally present 
in the potato. The covering with water to exclude the air will 
prevent this discoloration. Potatoes should not be allowed to 
stand in water for any length of time, however, as they will 
become water soaked and lose much mineral matter and starch. 
Old potatoes that have lost much water by evaporation are 
improved by standing in cold water for an hour. 

Buying and Storing. 



In buying potatoes select those regular in shape, of medium 
size and with smooth skin. Store them in a cool, dry, dark 
place. 

When the potato sprouts, some of its starch turns to gum, 
causing it to be waxy when cooked. As soon as the sprouts 
appear on the old potatoes pick them off. 



50 FOOD AND COOKERY 

Ways of Cooking. 

1. Baked — most digestible. 

2. Boiled in jackets — small loss of nutriment, but the po- 
tatoes are apt to be dark. 

3. Boiled — pared — better color, but larger loss of food 
material. 

4. Sauted (commonly called fried) — too coated with 
grease to be digestible. 

5. French fried — apt to be under done. 

6. Creamed — considerable food value is added by the use 
of the cream sauce. 

Substitutes for Potatoes. 

Rice, macaroni, spaghetti, sweet potatoes, lye hominy, grits, 
etc. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES. 
Baked Potato. 

1. Select smooth, medium sized potatoes. 

2. Scrub clean with vegetable brush. 

3. Place on baking sheet or in dripping pan and bake in 
hot oven until soft. 

4. Press between the fingers in a towel to tell when they 
are done. Do not stick a fork into the potatoes while they 
are baking. 

5. When they are done roll between the hands in a towel 
and break the skin to allow the steam to escape. If the steam 
is allowed to cool and condense in the potatoes they will be 
soggy. 

6. Serve very hot with salt and butter. 

Boiled Potatoes. 

1. Select potatoes of same size, so that they will cook 
evenly. 



WHITE POTATO 51 

2. Scrub clean and pare thinly. 

3. Drop into boiling water and boil gently until soft (test 
with fork or knitting needle.) 

4. Salt when half done. 

5. When done drain off every drop of water and shake 
over the fire until dry. 

6. Serve very hot with meat, gravy or butter. 

Mashed Potatoes. 

6 potatoes 1 t. salt. 

3 T. butter spk. pepper. 

I C. (?) milk. 

1. Mash or press hot, boiled potatoes through a ricer. 

2. Add butter, salt, pepper and enough hot milk to 
moisten. 

3. Beat until light and creamy and pile lightly in a hot 
dish. 

4. Serve hot. 

Creamed Potatoes. 

2 T. butter 1 C. milk 

2 T. flour 2 C. diced cooked potatoes 

J t. salt spk. pepper 

1. Melt butter in sauce pan, being careful not to scorch 
the butter. 

2. Add flour, salt, pepper and stir until smooth. 

3. Place on fire and let it cook until it bubbles. 

4. Add milk and boil two minutes, stirring constantly. If 
too thick, add more milk. 

5. Add potatoes. Re-heat, garnish with parsley and 
serve. 



52 FOOD AND COOKERY 

NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 

What difficulties did you find in the laboratory work? 
How will you overcome these difficulties next time? 
(Answer these questions after each exercise.) 



WHITE POTATO 53 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

1. A plant is made up of root, stem, leaf and flower. What 
part of each of the following plants is used as food? Onion, 
pea, bean, white potato, sweet potato, turnip, cabbage, lettuce, 
cauliflower and asparagus / 

2. Where are most of the potatoes used in this communi- 
ty grown? 

3. How much were potatoes a bushel this fall ? Last fall? 

4. What is the reason for the difference in price, if any? 



54 FOOD AND COOKERY 

READING NOTES. 

References. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 298. 
Norton, Food and Dietetics, p. 126. 
Hutchison, Food and Dietetics, p. 235. 
Williams and Fisher, Elements of the Theory and Practice 
of Cookery, p. 59. 

Barrows, Home Science Cook Book, p. 158. 






VEGETABLES 
HOME WORK. 



55 



Date. 



Name of Dish. 



Results. 



Remarks 




56 FOOD AND COOKERY 

EXERCISE II. 




RICE. 
History. 

Bice is probably a native of the East Indies, but it is now 
cultivated in all parts of the world. It grows best in low, 
marshy lands in sub-tropical climates. Rice forms the chief 
food of almost one-half the population of the earth. With the 
exception of wheat it is more widely used than any other grain. 
At present the amount of rice raised each year in the United 
States is less than the amount used. The deficit must be im- 
ported from China, Japan or India. In 1909 the United States 
produced about 668,901,600 pounds of cleaned rice. 



RICE 57 

Preparation for Market. 

When rice is ripe it is cut, leaving a twelve-inch stubble, 
upon which the grain is allowed to lie loose for twenty-four 
hours. It is then put in shocks on dry ground in the shade to 
finish drying or curing, as it is called. This step is very im- 
portant, for if the rice is not properly cured, the grains will be 
easily broken in the hulling machines and will have a chalky 
appearance. The rice is then threshed and spread on floors to 
dry. As it comes from the thresher it is known as "paddy" 
or "rough rice." It consists of the grain, a closely fitting skin 
and a stiff, hard husk. These two coverings are ground off in 
hulling machines. The rice is then clean, but is of a dull, creamy 
color and must go through the process of polishing. This is 
done by rubbing the grains between rollers covered with very 
soft moosehide or sheepskin. After polishing, it is separated 
into the various sizes and grades by means of gauze screens 
and is then barreled for the market. 

In appearance* growing rice is halfway between barley and 
oats. 




mmm l€ "" ~ '^M 



58 FOOD AND COOKERY 

Classification. 

Honduras or Carolina rice, a long, slender grain. 
Japanese rice, a short, flat, oval grain. 

Note. — It is said that there are 1,400 varieties of rice grown, but 
the above are the two principal ones sold in the United States. 

Composition. 



Before polishing. 


After polishing. 


Starch, 


76.8 


79.4 


Water, 


12.0 


12.4 


Protein, 


7.2 


6.9 


Fat, 


2.0 


A 


Fiber, 


1.0 


A 


Mineral, 


1.0 


.5 



Rice is a nutritious food and is easily digested, but is lacking 
in fat, protein and mineral matter, so should be eaten with eggs, 
milk, butter, fruit, etc. 

Fashion in this country demands that the rice grains be 
polished before being put on the market. From the table of com- 
position it will be seen that almost all the fat and some of the 
protein is lost by this process. 

Broken rice can be bought for one-half the price of whole 
grains, and, although the dish may not be as attractive looking, 
it is fully as nutritious and palatable. 

Rice loses a large amount of starch in boiling, but the water 
in which it is boiled can be used to thicken soup or for starch- 
ing fine clothes, such as baby clothes, so that the material need 
not be wasted. 

A longer time is required to steam rice than to boil it, but 
there is no loss of food material. Only as much liquid should 
be added as the rice will absorb (from three to four times as 
much liquid as rice). 



RICE 
WAYS OF SERVING RICE. 



59 




As a Vegetable. 

1. Seasoned with butter, salt, pepper and chopped parsley. 

2. Re-heated in tomato sauce. 

3. Re-heated in curry sauce. 

4. Seasoned with salt and pepper and served with meat 
gravy. 




As an Entree. 



1. Escalloped with cheese. 

2. Escalloped with cold meat or Hamburg steak. 

3. Rice croquettes. 



60 

As a Cereal. 



FOOD AND COOKERY 




1. Plain, with cream and sugar. 

2. Plain, with butter and sugar. 

3. Steamed with raisins, served with cream and sugar. 



■ 'k 




As a Dessert. 

1. Custard rice pudding. 

2. Creamy rice pudding. 

3. Molded in cups, served cold with jelly and cream. 

4. Molded in cups, served hot with hard sauce. 

5. Molded in cups, served hot or cold with stewed fruit. 
Left-over boiled rice may also be used in making griddle 

cakes, muffins, fritters, waffles, etc. 



RICE 61 

LABORATORY EXERCISES. 

Boiled Rice (Chinese method). 

1 C. Rice 2 qts. boiling water 

1 T. salt 

1. Pick over the rice and wash it well. 

2. Add to rapidly boiling, salted water a few grains at a 
time so as not to stop the boiling. If the rice settles to the 
bottom, stir it gently with a fork or wooden spoon. Keep the 
grains dancing about in the water so they will not stick 
together. 

3. Boil until grains are soft. (About 25 minutes.) Cut 
a grain in two; if there is no hard core in the center the rice is 
done. 

4. Drain in colander and rinse with hot water. 

5. Dry in open oven or on back of stove. Every grain 
should stand out plump and separate. 

Steamed Rice. 

1 C. rice 1 C. water and 2 C. milk 

3 C. water or 1 t. salt 

1. Put water in upper part of double boiler over the fire 
and bring to boil. 

2. Pick over and wash the rice and put into the boiling 
water. 

3. Boil five minutes, then place upper part of boiler over 
hot water, cover and steam from forty to fifty minutes, or until 
the grains are soft. 

4. Uncover and allow the steam to escape. 
Note. — If milk is used, boil rice in one cup of water for five minutes, 

then add the milk and place over hot water to steam. 



62 FOOD AND COOKERY 

Rice with Chopped Parsley. 

1 C. rice 2 rounding T. chopped parsley 

3 T. butter salt, pepper 

1. Boil rice by Chinese method. 

2. Wash parsley and chop fine. 

3. Add butter, salt, pepper and parsley to the hot rice and 
serve with meat, in the place of potatoes. 

Rice with Tomato Sauce. 



2 C. tomatoes 




3 T 


butter 


1 


sliced 


onion 




3 T. 


flour 


2 


pepper 


corns 


i C. 


it. 
rice 


salt 



1. Boil rice by Chinese method. 

2. Cook tomato, onion, pepper, and salt together until 
tomato is soft, then rub through a strainer. 

3. Melt butter in a sauce pan 

4. Add flour and stir until smooth. 

5. Place on fire and cook until it bubbles. 

6. Add strained tomato and boil two minutes, stirring con- 
stantly. 

7. Add boiled rice to the tomato sauce, re-heat and serve 
as vegetable. 

Curry Sauce. 

3 T. butter 1 t. salt 

2 slices onion f t. curry powder 

3 T. flour | t. pepper 

1J C. scalded milk 

1. Brown onion in the butter. 






MCE 63 

2. Eemove onion and add flour and seasonings to the 
butter. 

3. Stir until smooth. 

4. Place on fire and cook until it bubbles. 

5. Add scalded milk and boil two minutes, stirring con- 
stantly. 

Escalloped Rice. 



2 C. cooked rice 1 C. white sauce or tomato 

J C. grated cheese sauce 

(2 oz.) I C. buttered crumbs 

1. Put a layer of rice in the bottom of a buttered baking- 
dish. 

2. Add a layer of white sauce, then one of grated cheese. 

3. Repeat until the dish is full, then spread buttered 
crambs on top. 

4. Bake for twenty minutes, or until the crumbs are brown 
and the sauce bubbles up through the crumbs. 

Note. — For white sauce, use 1 C. milk, 1 T. butter, 1 T. flour, 
-J t. salt. Make the same as tomato sauce. 

For buttered crumbs, use 1 T. butter to ^ C. crumbs. Melt the 
butter in a sauce pan, add crumbs, and stir -until all the crumbs are 
coated with butter. 



64 FOOD AND COOKERY 

NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 



RICE 65 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

1. Compare the cost, time, ease of preparation and nutri- 
tive valne of potatoes with rice. 

2. Can yon suggest any case where the keeping qualities 
and the compactness would cause you to lay in a supply of rice 
rather than potatoes for a starchy vegetable? 

3. What could you serve with rice to supply the lack of 
mineral salts? 



66 FOOD AND COOKERY 

READING NOTES. 

References. 

Carpenter's Foods and their Uses, p. 63. 
Carpenter's How the World is Fed, p. 56. 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 417. 






RICE 
HOME WORK. 



67 



Date. 



Name of Dish. 



Result. 



Remarks. 




68 



FOOD AND COOKERY 
EXERCISE III. 




1. OATS. 



2. WHEAT. 



3. RICE. 



4. CORN. 



CEREAL BREAKFAST FOOD. 

Cereals are cultivated grasses, such as wheat, rice, oats and 
other grains. They are the most widely used of any vegetable 
food, partly because they are so easily and cheaply grown in 
almost all climates, and also, because they can readily be made 
into palatable and nourishing dishes that are easily digested. 

Only the seeds of these plants can be digested by the human 
stomach. The remainder of the plant can be used as fodder for 
cattle and horses. 

Composition. 

These seeds, like the potato, are storehouses for food to 
the young plants and as starch is the easiest form in which plants 
can store food, we find that the grains are from 60% to 75% 



CEREAL BREAKFAST FOOD 69 

starch. They also contain 6% to 16% protein, from 1% to 7% 
fat, and an average of 1% mineral matter. 

Unlike the potato, raw cereals contain a very small amount 
of water — from 8% to 12%. In cooking, however, they absorb 
from two to four times their bulk in water so that the proportion 
of water to starch in cooked cereals is much like that of boiled 
potatoes. 

The woody fiber or cellulose in all the cereals except rice, 
is tougher than that in the potato and requires longer cooking 
to soften. 

Buying and Storing. 

Cereals sold in bulk are cheaper than those sold in pound 
packages, but the sealed package keeps out so much dust and 
dirt that it is worth the extra cost. 

Do not leave cereals in the paper boxes after they have 
been opened as insects, dust, etc., will quickly find a lodging 
place there. Empty them into glass jars and keep the covers 
screwed down. It would be well to have several kinds on hand 
at the same time so as not to serve one kind continuously. 

Classification. 

1. Cooked cereals. 

2. Uncooked cereals. 

a. Rolled. 

b. Granular. 

The ready cooked cereals such as puffed rice and wheat, 
toasted corn flakes, shredded wheat biscuits, etc., are very 
palatable and appetizing and are welcome changes from the 
cooked porridge, especially in summer. They should not be 
eaten exclusively, however. Those in which the starch has been 



70 FOOD AND COOKERY 

partly digested by the process of manufacture will tend to weak- 
en the digestion and those that contain raw starch will overtax 
the digestion. 

In the preparation of the rolled cereals the grain has been 
steamed and then passed through hot steel rollers. The heat 
partly cooks the starch and the great pressure to which the 
grains are subjected in passing between the rollers bursts open 
some of the cell walls and crushes some of the starch grains, 
so that the rolled cereals do not require as long cooking nor as 
much water as the granular cereals. They will absorb two times 
their bulk of water and should be cooked from three-quarters of 
an hour to two hours. 

The granular cereals have not been cooked in the process of 
manufacture. They require four times their bulk of water and 
should be cooked from one to three hours. 

One-third teaspoonful salt should be added to each cup of 
water for all cereals. 

Cooking and Digestion of Starch. 

Uncooked starch is not readily digested by the human diges- 
tive system. 

Three conditions are necessary to the thorough cooking of 
starch: 

1. There must be a large amount of water present. 

2. There must be a temperature of not less than 212° (boil- 
ing temperature) for at least part of the time. 

3. It must cook for a long time. If it is kept at boiling 
temperature only part of the time, the length of time for cooking 
must be increased. 

All starchy foods should be thoroughly chewed and mixed 



CEREAL BREAKFAST FOOD 71 

with the saliva in the mouth, as the saliva is a very important 
aid in the digestion of starch. 

Use of the Double Boiler. 

A double boiler consists of two parts ; the lower part, which 
should be kept one-third full of boiling water, when in use, and 
the upper part in which the food is to be cooked. As long as 
the lower boiler is supplied with water the food in the upper 
part cannot burn nor become quite as hot as the temperature 
of boiling water. 

A home-made double boiler can be made by placing one 
saucepan inside of another with a Mason jar cover, or support 
of some kind, to keep the upper saucepan from resting on the 
bottom of the lower one. 




Home-made Double Boiler Manufactured Double Boiler 

LABORATORY EXERCISES. 
General Rules for Cooking. 

1. Put water and salt in upper part of double boiler and 
place over fire. 

2. When water is boiling, add cereal slowly so as not to 
stop the boiling of the water. 

3. Boil until just too thick to pour, occasionally lift the 
mixture lightly with a fork to keep it from sticking. (If it is 



72 



FOOD AND COOKERY 



stirred vigorously with a spoon it will become sticky and pasty.) 
4. When it is thick enough, place it over hot water and 
cook from one to four hours. 

Note. — Cereals should always he cooked twice as long as required 
by the directions given on the package. 




Rolled Oats with Bananas. 

1 C. oats f t. salt 

2 C. water 3 bananas 

1. Follow general rules for cooking and cook one hour. 

2. Wet individual cups in cold water, pack cereal in cups, 
let stand five minutes, then turn into individual cereal bowls. 

3. Surround with sliced bananas and serve with cream. 

Note. — Sliced peaches, stewed apples or stewed prunes may be 
used instead of bananas. Some prefer a cereal too soft to be molded. 
In that case place fruit on top of cereal. 

Cream of Wheat with Raisins. 



i C. Cream of Wheat 
2 C. water 



t. salt 

C. Sultana raisins 



1. 
2r 



Follow general directions for cooking and cook one hour. 
Stir in the raisins ten minutes before removing the 



cereal from the stove. 



CEREAL BREAKFAST FOOD 73 

3. Serve with cream and sugar. 

Note. — A small baked apple or baked pear may be served with 
the cereal in winter when fresh fruit is scarce. 

i 






Baked Apple. 

6 sour apples \ t. cinnamon 

6 T. sugar 1| t. butter 

\ C. cold water 

1. Wash and core apples. 

2. Put into a graniteware baking dish. 

3. Fill cavities with sugar and cinnamon and place \ t. 
butter on top of each. 

4. Surround with water and bake until soft. 

5. Serve hot or cold with cream or with the syrup in which 
they were baked. 

Note. — Currants or English walnuts may be mixed with the sugar 
and filled into the cavities of the apples. 

Apples are sometimes pared before baking, but they do not keep 
their shape as well and do not cook as quickly as when baked in 
their skins. 



74 FOOD AND COOKERY 

Corn Meal Mush. 

\ C. corn meal 2\ C. water 

1 t. salt 

1. Follow general directions for cooking and cook two 
hours. 

2. Serve with butter and sugar, or cream and sugar, or 
pack into a brick-shaped bread pan which has been wet in cold 
water. When cold it can be cut in slices and fried. 

Note. — If corn meal is very fine, mix with -| C. cold water before 
adding to the boiling water, to prevent lumping. 

Fried Mush. 

1. Dip slices of cold mush in flour or fine crumbs and saute 
in butter until a light brown. 

2. Serve with butter and maple syrup. 

Note. — Wheat or oat mush or cold boiled rice may be cooked in this 
manner. 



. 



I 



CEREAL BREAKFAST FOOD 
NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 



75 



76 FOOD AND COOKERY 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

1. Make a list of four different kinds of cereals easily ob- 
tained in your locality. 

2. Plan the breakfasts for one week telling which cereal 
you would serve each time and how you would serve it. 



CEREAL BREAKFAST FOOD 77 

READING NOTES. 

Suggested Topics: 

Fireless cookers. 
Grain crops in U. S. 

References: 

Chapter III Foods and Cookery, Kinne & Cooley. 

Farmers' Bulletin, 389. 

Chapter IX Physics of the Household, Lynde. 



78 



FOOD AND COOKERY 
HOME WORK. 



Date. 



Name of Dish. 



Results. 



Remarks. 




CREAMED DISHES 
EXERCISE IV. 



79 




CREAMED DISHES. 

Sauces. 

The earliest form of sauce or gravy that was used with 
meat was a dressing of honey and spices, later the juice which 
had been drawn from the meat in cooking, was seasoned and 
poured over it when it was served. Still later a sauce was made 
by thickening the meat juice and probably some form of fat was 
added to make it richer. 

The modern cook uses an endless number of sauces as dress- 
ings for eggs and vegetables as well as for meats. The cream 
sauce, white sauce or milk gravy, as it is variously known in 
different localities, is the commonest and simplest of these. The 
others are merely variations of this one form. Orion, a Greek, 
one of the original seven sages of the kitchen is said to have 
invented the white sauce. 

Value of Sauces in the Daily Diet. 

I. Sauces add variety to the diet by enabling us to serve 
the same food in several different ways. Take for example boiled 
cabbage. The ordinary way is to boil the cabbage with a piece 
of meat and serve it with vinegar. This may be varied 



80 FOOD AND COOKERY 

1. By re-heating plain boiled cabbage in white sauce. 

2. By arranging boiled cabbage in a buttered baking 
dish with alternate layers of white sauce, covering with buttered 
crumbs and baking. 

3. By serving on slices of toast with Hollandaise sauce 
(white sauce to which lemon juice and the yolks of eggs have 
been added) poured over it. 

II. A small amount of food may be made to serve more 
persons by the addition of a sauce, thus using left-overs that 
might otherwise be thrown away. 

III. The flavor of the strong juiced vegetables is somewhat 
disguised by the use of a sauce and made more palatable to 
some. 

IV. Considerable food value is added to the dish by the 
use of a sauce. 

Persons of weak digestion should not use thickened sauces 
too extensively unless they are made in the double boiler ac- 
cording to Method No. II. In the other methods the flour is too 
thoroughly coated with fat to be easily digested, and milk that 
has been boiled is less digestible than milk that has been heated 
in the double boiler and kept below boiling temperature. 

LABOEATOEY EXERCISES. 

Thin White Sauce. 

U T. flour i t. salt 

H T. butter 1 C. milk 

Medium White Sauce. 

2 T. flour i t. salt 

2 T. butter 1 C. milk 



CREAMED DISHES 81 

Thick White Sauce. 

4 T. flour 1 C. milk 

2 T. butter £ t. salt 

Note. — In making a large quantity of sauce, the amount of but- 
ter may be reduced. 

Methods of Mixing. 

Method No. I. (American) 

1. Melt butter in sauce pan, being careful not to scorch it. 

2. Add flour and salt and stir until smooth. 

3. Place on fire and let it cook until it bubbles. 

4. Add milk gradually and let it boil two minutes, stirring 

constantly. If too thick, add more milk. 

Method No. II. (Invalid Cooking) 

1. Mix flour and salt with a little cold milk. When 
smooth, add to the rest of the milk, place over hot water and 
cook thirty minutes, stirring frequently to prevent lumping. 

2. Add butter and stir until melted. 

Method No. III. (French) 

1. Rub flour, salt and butter to a paste. 

2. Let it cook until it bubbles, then add milk gradually. 

3. Boil two minutes, stirring constantly. 

Uses. 

Thin white sauce is used for thickening soups, for moisten- 
ing escalloped dishes and for cream toast. 

Medium white sauce is best as dressing for warmed-over 
cooked meat and for cooked vegetables. 



82 FOOD AND COOKERY 

Thick white sauce forms the foundation of croquettes and 
souffles. 

Tomato sauce may be made by Method No. I, substituting 
stewed and strained tomato for the milk. 

For brown sauce, brown the butter and flour, increase the 
amount of flour to 3 T. to 1 C. liquid and use meat stock instead 
of milk. 

Cream Toast. 

3 T. flour i t. salt 

3 T. butter 2 C. milk 

6 slices of toast 

1. Make white sauce b} T one of the above methods. 

2. Cut stale bread in ^-inch slices. 

3. Put slices into wire toaster or on broiler and hold over fire. 

4. Hold far enough from the fire so that they will dry 
thoroughly before they begin to brown. Then hold nearer the 
fire until they are a deep golden brown. 

5. Dip each slice of toast into the white sauce, place on 
serving dish and pour remaining sauce over all. 

6. Serve hot. 

Creamed Cabbage. 

1 small head of cabbage 1-| C. medium white sauce. 

1. Have water boiling. 

2. Take off outside leaves of cabbage. 

3. Cut cabbage in quarters and remove core. 

4. Separate leaves of cabbage, wash and drop a leaf at a 
time into the boiling water. 

5. Boil fifteen minutes, drain off water and cover again 
with boiling water and boil until tender. 



CREAMED DISHES 83 

6. Drain off water and reheat in H C. medium white sauce. 
Creamed Turnips. 

3 C. turnips cut in cubes 1 C. medium white sauce. 

1. Wash and pare turnips and cut in 4-inch cubes. 

2. Drop into boiling water, boil ten minutes, drain and 
cover again with boiling salted water. 

3. Cook until tender, then drain and reheat in white sauce. 

Creamed Peas. 

2 C. shelled peas f C. medium white sauce. 

1. Wash and shell peas and put on to cook in small quan- 
tity of boiling water. 

2. Salt when half done. 

3. When tender, drain and reheat in white sauce. 

Note. — A teaspoonful of sugar may be added to the water in ivhich 
the peas are cooked. 

Canned peas may be drained, rinsed, reheated in small quantity 
of boiling water, drained again and added to white sauce. Be sure to 
drain and rinse the canned peas to get rid of any chemical preservative 
that may have been used. 

Creamed Dried Beef. 

i lb. sliced dried beef 1 C. medium white sauce. 

1. Separate the meat into inch pieces and cover with hoi 
water. 

2. Let stand two minutes and drain. 

3. Just before serving add to white sauce. If allowed to 
stand in the white sauce for any length of time it may cause it 
to curdle. 



84 FOOD AND COOKERY 

Creamed Salt Codfish. 

1 C. codfish 1 C. medium white sauce 

1. Pull codfish into shreds. 

2. Cover with hot water and let stand ten minutes. 

3. Drain, add to white sauce and reheat. 

4. Garnish with hard boiled eggs and serve with potatoes 
boiled in the jackets. One tablespoonful of flour may be omitted 
and a well beaten egg stirred into the sauce just before serving. 



CREAMED DISHES 85 

NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 



86 FOOD AND COOKERY 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

1. In what way does a sance add to the food valne of a 
dish? 

2. Why wonld yon not serve thickened sances to children 
and persons of weak digestion? 

3. Write a general recipe that could be followed in mak- 
ing any one of the following sances: — white sance, meat gravy, 
tomato sance. 



CREAMED DISHES 87 

READING NOTES. 



88 



FOOD AND COOKERY 
HOME WORK. 



Date. 



Name of Dish. 



Results. 



Remarks. 




CREAMED SOUPS 
EXERCISE V. 



89 




CREAM SOUPS. 
Classification of Soups. 

1, Meat Soups. Those with meat stock for foundation 
as, noodle soup, rice soup, chicken gumbo, bouillon, etc. 

2. Cream or Milk Soups. Those with milk or white sauce 
for foundation as, cream of tomato soup, cream of asparagus 
soup, potato soup, oyster soup, cracker soup, etc. 

Note. — Purees are very thick vegetable soups. 

General Rules for Preparing Cream Soups. 

1. Boil vegetables with seasonings until soft, then rub 
through strainer and add to an equal quantity of thin or medi- 
um white sauce, just before serving. 

2. Reheat but do not boil as the acid in the vegetables will 
cause the milk to curdle if boiled or allowed to stand long. 



90 FOOD AND COOKERY 

3. To keep milk soups from curdling: — 

(a.) A speck of soda may be added to the strained vege- 
table pulp before it is combined with the white 
sauce. 

(b.) A sauce may be made of the butter, flour and strained 
vegetable pulp cooked together, the hot milk being 
added just before serving. 

(c.) A thickening of corn starch or flour mixed with cold 
water may be stirred into the strained vegetable 
pulp, then boiled until smooth. The butter and 
hot milk should then be added just before serving. 

Adding flour or corn starch to these soups keeps the solid 
part of the vegetable pulp from separating from the liquids 
and is called "binding" the soup. The thickening must be 
boiled with the vegetable pulp. 

If soup is too thick, add more hot milk; if too thin, a beaten 
egg may be added just before serving. 

One quart of soup will serve four or five persons. 

Serving Soup. 

Cream soups are suitable for the main course at supper 
or luncheon,, but are too heavy if a full dinner is to follow. 

Crackers, toast fingers, croutons or bread sticks may be 
served with soup. Celery, olives and pickles often accompany 
the soup course. 

Avoid crumbling bread or crackers into soup. One glance 
at an untidy soup plate filled with soup-soaked bread crumbs 
will explain the reason for this rule. Crisply toasted croutons 
or the brittle little oyster crackers may be dropped a few at a 
time into the soup and eaten before they have time to become 
soaked and unattractive looking. 



CREAMED SOUPS .91 

In serving soup, each bowl or plate should be heated and 
filled two-thirds full of soup, then set into a service plate and 
placed in front of a guest. 

Soup is eaten with a round bowl soup spoon or a dessert 
spoon. The spoon should be placed on the table at the right 
of the knife, or if the teaspoons to be used later in the meal are 
on the table, these are placed at the right of the knife and the 
soup spoon at the right of the teaspoons. 

In eating soup, the side of the spoon farthest from you 
should be dipped into the soup, the' spoon should then be raised 
to the mouth and the soup silently sipped from the side of the 
spoon. 

Value of Cream Soups. 

Cream soups are nourishing, easily digested and economical. 
The tough, indigestible parts of the vegetables are strained 
out, leaving only the finely divided tender portion to be com- 
bined with milk, butter, flour, etc. Vegetables too old or tough 
to be served in the usual way can be cooked for a long time 
and after straining used in cream soups. The tender parts of 
celery or asparagus may be served as a vegetable at one meal 
and the tougher portions used in a cream soup at another. 

The celery leaves may be washed," dried and put away to 
use as seasoning for soup when celery is scarce or high in 
price. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES. 
Cracker Soup. 

5 T. powd. crackers 1 C. boiling water 
J t. salt 1 C. milk 

1 slice onion 1 t. butter 



92 FOOD AND COOKERY 

1. Scald milk and onion in double boiler. 

2. Stir boiling water into the powdered crackers and boil 
two minutes. 

3. Remove onion and add milk to crackers and water. 

4. Return to double boiler and cook ten minutes. 

5. Add butter and salt and serve hot. 

Cream of Corn Soup. 

2 C. corn 2 T. butter 

2 C. boiling water 2 T. flour 

2 C. milk li t. salt 

2 slices onion spk. pepper 

1. Chop corn, add water and simmer fifteen minutes, then 
rub through strainer. 

2. Mix flour with 2 T. cold water and stir into strained 
vegetable pulp. Boil two minutes, stirring constantly. 

3. Scald milk with onion. Remove onion and add milk to 
tiiickened corn pulp. 

4. Reheat but do not boil. 

5. Add butter and serve hot. 

Potato Soup. 

3 medium sized potatoes H t. salt 

4 C. milk spk. pepper 
3 T. butter 2 slices onion 

3 T. flour 1 t. chopped parsley 

1. Make white sauce of butter, flour, salt, pepper and milk. 

2. Boil potatoes and onion together. When soft, drain 
and press through a ricer. 

3. Add white sauce gradually to the mashed potato. 

4. Reheat but do not boil. 



CREAMED SOUPS 93 

5. Sprinkle chopped parsley over the top and serve hot. 
Cream of Tomato Soup. 

1 qt. tomatoes 4 T. butter 

1 T. sugar 4 T. flour 

2 slices onion H t. salt 

1 qt. milk spk. pepper 

1. Cook tomato, sugar and onion together, then rub 
through a strainer. 

2. Melt butter, add flour, salt and pepper and cook until it 
bubbles. Add strained tomato and boil two minutes, stirring 
constantly. 

3. Scald milk and add to tomato just before serving. 

Cream of Asparagus Soup. 

1 can of asparagus 2 C. milk 

2i C. of water 4 T. butter 

1 slice onion 4 T. flour 

spk. pepper H t. salt 

1. Eemove tips of asparagus and save to use as garnish 
for soup. 

2. Cook stalks, water and onion together for twenty min- 
utes then rub through a strainer. 

3. Make white sauce of flour, butter and milk and add to 
strained asparagus. 

4. Season with salt and pepper, add asparagus tips and 
reheat, but do not boil. 

5. Serve hot with toast fingers. 



94 FOOD AND COOKERY 

Cream of Salmon Soup. 

1 C. canned salmon 4 C. milk 
1* t. salt 2 T. butter 

spk. pepper 4 T. flour - 

1. Remove bones and skin and pick salmon to pieces. Put 
through meat grinder or rub to a paste with a wooden spoon. 

2. Make a white sauce of butter, flour, salt and pepper and 
add gradually to the salmon. 

3. Reheat and serve hot with croutons. 

Croutons. 

Cut stale bread into one- third inch cubes. Put in pan and 
bake until a light brown. Stir occasionally so that they will 
brown evenly. 

Toast Fingers or Imperial Sticks. 

Cut stale bread into one-third inch slices. Cut slices into 
one-third inch strips and brown in oven. 

Bread Sticks. 

Roll bread dough into strips eight inches long and about 
the size of a lead pencil. Let rise until twice the size, then 
bake in quick oven until crisp and brown. 



_ 



CREAMED SOUPS 95 

NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 



96 FOOD AND COOKERY 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

1. Would it be economy to use half water instead of all 
milk in making tomato soup! Give reasons. 



CREAMED SOUPS 97 

READING NOTES. 

References. 

Theory and Practice of Cookery, Williams & Fisher, p. 248. 
Home Science Cook Book, Barrows, p. 76. 



98 



FOOD AND COOKERY 
HOME WORK. 



Date. 



Name of Dish. 



Result. 



Remarks. 




THE DINING ROOM 
EXERCISE VI. 



99 




THE DINING ROOM. 
"A separate room for serving meals is one of the luxuries 
of modern life. Even a generation ago old-fashioned people in 
England and America used their dining rooms as living rooms. 
In the Middle Ages the nobleman and his servants ate in the 
hall. The tables consisted of boards resting on trestles. The 
seats were narrow benches or stools so made that they could 
be easily carried away when the meal was over. The meals 
eaten in private were served in the lord's chamber. The media- 



100 FOOD AND COOKERY 

eval chamber developed into a private suite of living rooms, 
the outer one of which came to be used as the family dining 
room. Now a dining room is a part of the house plan of even 
the workingman's home." (Wharton and Codman.) 

As meal time is practically the only occasion in the average 
American home when the whole family is gathered together, 
the room where these meals are served, whether it be a separate 
dining room or one end of the kitchen, should be as cheerful and 
attractive as possible. Not only should the room and its appoint- 
ments be pleasing but each member of the family should do his 
or her share in making the hour at the table the cheeriest, 
brightest part of the day. Aside from the enjoyment to be 
gained from a pleasant supper hour, scientists tell us we profit 
physically as well. Our food digests more readily when we are 
cheerful and contented. 

Decoration of the Dining Room. 

Mainly plants and flowers. 

Few pictures. 

Few ornaments. 

No hangings except light, washable curtains. 

Furniture. 

Plain, substantial furniture of good design should be used — 
all of the pieces harmonizing with each other and with the gen- 
eral decoration of the room. 

Necessary Pieces of Furniture. 

1. Extension table. 

2. Dining chairs. 

3. Buffet or sideboard. 

4. Serving table. 

5. China closet. 



THE DINING ROOM 101 

Floors. 

Hard wood if possible, or 

Soft wood with the cracks carefully filled and the floor 
painted with some good floor paint. 

A rug on which the dining table stands is the only permis- 
sible form of carpet. 

Daily Care of the Dining Room. 

1. Before starting the breakfast, open the windows and air 
the dining room. 

2. Set the furniture in place and put fresh water on the 
flowers. Then close the windows and go to the kitchen and start 
the breakfast. 

3. While the breakfast is cooking, set the table. 

4. After breakfast, clear the table, brush the crumbs from 
the floor and rug and wipe the floor around the rug with a dust 
mop or with a Canton flannel bag slipped over the broom. 

5. Dust the furniture with a piece of clean cheese cloth. 
Be careful to gather the dust into the cloth and not scatter it 
about the room. Have windows open while dusting. 

6 Set furniture in place, close windows and adjust shades. 
7. Brush up crumbs around table and air room after each 
meal. 

Weekly Cleaning. 

Once a week clean dining room thoroughly. 

1. Open windows, close doors and see that all food and 
flowers are taken from the room. 

2. Eemove linens, cover tables and sideboard with cotton 
covers kept for the purpose. 

3. Roll up small rugs to be cleaned outside. 



102 FOOD AND COOKERY 

4. Dust chairs and take into next room. 

5. Brush walls with wall brush or bag slipped over broom. 

6. Wipe plate rail, tops of doors and window casings. 

7. Push dining table to one side of the room, dampen the 
broom in a solution of borax and water and sweep rug. To keep 
dust from flying, sweep with short strokes and do not lift broom 
at the end of each stroke. If center rug is small and easily 
handled it can be more satisfactorily cleaned out of doors by 
beating it on the wrong side and then sweeping both sides. 

8. Sweep floor with broom and wipe with a clean mop or 
bag on broom. 

9. Wash windows and mirrors with warm water and am- 
monia. Wipe with soft cloth and polish with soft paper. 

10. Remove covers from table and sideboard, take out 
of doors, shake out the dust, fold and put away. 

11. Dust furniture and woodwork with soft cloth. 

12. Put out fresh linens, wash and put in place any pieces 
of china or glass used on the plate rail or sideboard. Avoid 
an array of glass or china in either place. It is better taste 
to have the pieces displayed few in number and simple in ar- 
rangement. 

13. Bring in chairs, set furniture in order, close windows 
and adjust shades. 



THE DINING ROOM 103 

NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 

Why is it necessary to be so careful about raising a dust? 
What objections are there to sideboard and plate rail cov- 
ered with china and cut glass? 



104 FOOD AND COOKERY 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

1. Mix 2 T. gelatine with 1 C. cold water. Dissolve over 
hot water and ponr into two saucers. Cover tightly and put into 
the oven and bake for one hour to kill any bacteria or molds that 
may be on the gelatine. Eemove from oven and set into ice box 
to harden. When cold put on table in dining room or kitchen. 
Remove the cover from one saucer and leave the other tightly 
covered. Sweep the dining room without any care in regard to 
dust. Put the two saucers aside for forty-eight hours. See 
which has the greatest crop of mold and bacteria at the end of 
that time. 

Whence did the bacteria and mold come ? 



THE DINING ROOM 105 

PICTURES OF GOOD DINING ROOM FURNITURE. 



106 FOOD AND COOKERY 

READING NOTES. 



_ 



THE DINING ROOM 
HOME WORK. 



107 



Date. Room Cleaned. Length of Time. Materials Used. Remarks. 



108 FOOD AND COOKERY 

EXERCISE VII. 

TABLE SETTING AND SERVING. 

Neatness, order, cleanliness and consideration for others are 
the principles that shonld nnderly all rnles for table service. 
Even the humblest room with the cheapest of table furnishings 
will seem attractive if everything is neat and clean and the 
orderly placing of the utensils and furniture shows that thought 
and care have been given to their arrangement. It is not neces- 
sary to know the latest fad in table etiquette. When at a loss 
as to the correct thing to do, do that which will be the most 
convenient and pleasing to your guests. For example — the 
knives and spoons are placed at the right of the plate because 
they are used in the right hand — the soup plate is placed on a 
service plate so that it may be more easily handled — the water 
glass is filled only three-fourths full so that the water will not 
spill if the table is accidentally jarred, etc. 

Laying the Table. 

1. The table should first be covered with a silence cloth 
made of table felt or a heavy, white cotton blanket or a quilted 
pad made of two thicknesses of unbleached muslin between which 
is a layer of sheet wadding. This cloth, as its name implies, is 
to lessen the noise made in placing the dishes on the table, also, 
to make the tablecloth lie more smoothly and to keep the hot 
dishes from marring the table. The cloth should be turned under 
the edge of the table at the corners and securely fastened with 
safety pins to keep it from slipping when the tablecloth is put on. 

2. The tablecloth should be placed over the silence cloth 
and should be absolutely smooth, straight and even, with the 
center fold of the cloth exactly in the middle of the table. 



TABLE SETTING AND SERVING 109 

3. A few cut flowers or a small fern or a dish of fruit in 
the center of the table will add to its attractiveness. Only 
fresh flowers should be used and care should be taken not to have 
the bouquet or fern so large as to obstruct the view across the 
table. If flowers are used, select those that will harmonize with 
the main color in the luncheon. For example, purple asters 
would not look as well on the table when the meal included 
tomatoes, beets and possibly cherries as would a vase of red or 
white asters or a small fern. A little thought in matters of this 
kind helps to make housework interesting and keeps it from 
becoming drudgery. 

4. A doily or centerpiece should be placed under the center 
decoration unless the tablecloth is a pattern cloth and has a 
figure woven in the center, in which case the doily will not be 
necessary. 

5. Usually all of the silver to be used during the meal is 
placed on the table before the guests sit down. For an elaborate 
luncheon where a great many pieces of silver would be needed, 
only the utensils needed for the first course are on the table, the 
rest are placed as needed. 

6. The plate should be placed right side up, one inch from 
the edge of the table at each place. The knife (or knives if 
more than one is used), should be placed at right of plate with 
sharp edge towards the plate; the forks, tines up, at left of plate. 
The spoons should be at the right of the knife in the order in 
which they are to be used, the one to be used first, farthest from 
the plate. The silver should be the same distance apart and the 
ends of the handles in line with the lower edge of the plate, one 
inch from the edge of the table. 

7. The glass of water is placed at the tip of the knife and 
the bread and butter plate at the tip of the fork. 



110 FOOD AND COOKERY 

8. The napkin should be tolded square and placed at the 
left of the fork with the open corner towards the handle of the 
fork. 

Note. — The plate, knives, forks, spoons, glass, oread and butter 
plate and napkin, properly arranged for one person is called a 
"cover." 

9. A salt and pepper shaker should be placed between each 
two guests in line with the upper edge of the bread and butter 
plates. 

10. The gentleman of the house is called the host and 
usually sits at the end of the table nearest the pantry door. The 
Lady of the house is the hostess and sits opposite the host facing 
the pantry door. 

11. If all the serving is to be done at the table, the cups and 
saucers, the sugar bowl and cream pitcher should be placed in 
front of the hostess and a stand for the coffee on the table at 
her right. A carving knife and as many spoons as will be needed 
in serving the vegetables should be placed at the right of the 
host. The carving fork should be placed at his left. 

12. A plate of butter with butter knife (or butter fork if 
the butter is served in balls) should be on one side of the table 
and the bread plate on the other. 

Serving. 

There are three ways, in which a meal may be served, known 
as (1) the English style of service in which the food is all served 
on the table, (2) the Russian style, where a]l of the courses are 
served from the kitcjien or sideboard, and (3) the compromise 
style which is a combination of the first two. 

The English style is the pleasantest way of serving where 
there are few guests and not many servants. It adds to the 



TABLE SETTING AND SERVING 111 

pleasure of the meal to see a genial host skillfully carving the 
roast and the simplest dessert gains in flavor when dished by the 
hands of a smiling hostess. 

The Eussian form of service is to be preferred if there is a 
large company to be served, provided there are well-trained ser- 
vants to attend to the wants of the guests. This form of service 
lifts considerable responsibility from the host and hostess at 
the time of serving. 

The compromise style is usually used at informal luncheons 
and frequently in homes where there are no servants it will be 
convenient to have possibly the salad course or the dessert served 
in the kitchen and the rest of the meal served at the table. 

Suggestions to Be Followed Whatever the Style of Service. 

The waitress should see that the dining room is free from 
dust, well aired, of right temperature (about 70° F) and pleas- 
antly lighted. She must see that everything is in readiness 
before the meal is announced. 

The waitress should stand at the left of the guest who is 
being served whenever she is passing food from which he is to 
help himself. At all other times she serves from the right of 
the guest. 

Cups of coffee should be set down at the right, beside the 
spoons. 

Water glasses should be filled without moving them if pos- 
sible. If it is necessary to bring them closer to the edge of the 
table, be careful not to touch them near the top. 

A folded napkin or a tray covered with a doily should be 
used to protect the hand in passing dishes. Hold dish low 
enough to be easily reached by the guests. In passing jellies, 
vegetables, etc., have spoon so placed in dish that guests may 



112 



FOOD AND COOKERY 



readily help themselves. In passing cream and sugar have 
handle of cream pitcher turned towards the guest. 

Fill water glasses and place butter on bread and butter 
plates just before the meal is announced. 

Have dishes for hot courses hot and for cold food cold. 
Dishes may be warmed in the warming oven or in hot water. 
Chill in the ice box for frozen desserts. 

All of the dishes belonging to one course are removed before 
the next course is brought in. Remove the largest dishes first 
then the plates, etc. Never pile dishes, take one in each hand. 

The bread and butter plates should be removed and the 
table crumbed just before the dessert course. 

The glasses of water remain on the table throughout the 
meal and should be refilled as often as necessary. 

Serving a Simple Three Course Luncheon, Compromise Style. 

MENU. 



Tomato Soup 
Creamed Beef 
Bread 



Pickles 



Hot Slaw 
Butter 
Canned Cherries 

Coffee 



Croutons 

Baked Potatoes 

Currant Jelly 
Cake 



TABLE SETTING AND SERVING 



113 





a. Napkin b. Fork, 

d. Water glass. e. Knife, 

g. Dessert spoon. 

Note. — If a butter spreader is used, place it on bread and butter 



c. Bread and butter plate, 
f. Coffee spoon. 
h. Soup spoon. 



plate. 

1. Put silence cloth and tablecloth on table. Place doily 
and fern dish or vase of red or white flowers in center of table. 

2. Arrange each place like diagram. 

3. Place salts and peppers between each two guests and 
put dish of pickles with pickle fork at one end of the table and 
dish of jelly with jelly spoon at the other. 

4. Arrange cups and saucers, sugar bowl and cream pitch- 
er in front of the hostess. 

5. Fill glasses three-fourths full of cold water (do not 
have ice in glasses) and place butter on plates just before 
luncheon is announced. 

6. On sideboard place as many dessert dishes and plates 
as will be needed for the dessert course, also extra spoons, 
knives, forks, etc., in case one is dropped on the floor. 



114 FOOD AND COOKERY 

7. On serving table have plate of bread and dish oi 
butter, tray with doily on it and pitcher of water on tray. 

8. When guests are seated, bring in soup. Have filled 
soup plates on service plates. Bring in two at a time, one in 
each hand. Commence with hostess or the guest of honor. 
Stand at her right and place plate on table directly in front 
of her then go to right of next guest and place in same manner. 

9. Return to the kitchen and bring two more plates of 
soup. Place in same way and continue until all have been 
served. 

10. Have croutons in bowl with doily in bottom of bowl. 
Place tablespoon in dish and going to the left of the one served 
first with soup, let her help herself to the croutons; then pass 
to the left of the next guest and so on until all have been served. 

11. Place dish of pickles on tray with fork beside it and 
pass the same as croutons. 

12. When all have finished with their soup, remove soup 
plates on service plates in the same way in which they were 
placed. 

13. When all have been removed, bring in platter of 
creamed Beef and place directly in front of host. Have folded 
napkin under the platter to protect the hand and as you place it 
on the table slip the napkin out. 

14. Have potatoes in a dish covered with a warm napkin. 
Place dish at left of platter. 

15. Bring in warm plates and place in pile on the side- 
board. Take one in each hand, stand at right of host and place 
one plate in front of him. When he has filled the plate take 
it up, place empty plate in front of him then go to right of per- 
son for whom the plate was prepared and place it on the table 
in front of her. 



TABLE SETTING AND SERVING 115 

16. Go to sideboard, get another warm plate, remove filled 
plate and place empty one in front of host. Place filled plate* 
in front of next guest and proceed in same manner until all are 
served - 

17. Go to kitchen, get dish of hot slaw, place on tray or on 
left hand with folded napkin under the dish. Place spoon in 
the dish and go to the left of each guest and allow them to 
help themselves to the slaw. Return the dish to kitchen when 
all have been served. 

18. Pass bread on plate in the same way. 

19. Place jelly on tray with spoon and pass to each guest. 
Do not commence with the same guest each time. 

20. Pass bread, jelly and slaw as often as necessary and 
see that water glasses and butter plates are kept supplied. 

21. If any guest wishes a second helping of meat and 
potato take his plate to the host and when it is filled, place it 
again in front of the guest. 

22. When all are through with this course, remove meat 
platter, then potato dish, then carry out the plates, one in each 
hand, going to the right of each guest. 

23. As there is no salad course, the bread and butter plates 
will be removed next, then the salts and peppers on a tray. Ev- 
erything should be removed except the glasses, the teaspoons 
and the coffee service. 

24. Crumb the table, using a folded napkin and plate or 
a crumb tray and scraper. 

25. Bring in a bowl of cherries and place in front of hostess 
with berry spoon beside it. 

26. Go to sideboard, place dessert dishes in plates, take 
one in each hand and standing at right of hostess, place one in 
front of her. When it is filled with cherries take it up, place 



116 FOOD AND COOKERY 

empty dish and plate in front of her. While she is filling that, 
place filled dish in front of guest and get another empty one 
from the sideboard, exchange for filled dish and proceed until 
all are served. 

27. Bring in coffee and place on stand at hostess' right. 

28. Pass cake on plate with folded napkin underneath. 

29. When cups are filled place at right of each guest. If 
the hostess does not serve the cream and sugar in the coffee, 
place bowl and pitcher on tray and pass to the left of each guest. 

30. If finger bowls are not used the waitress will have 
nothing more to do except pass the cake a second time and see 
that the glasses are refilled. 

31. If finger bowls are used, remove plates when all are 
through and place finger bowls which have been half filled with 
water and placed on plate with doily between bowl and plate 
in front of each guest. 

Serving without a Maid. 

If there should be no maid to wait upon the table, this meal 
could be easily served by members of the family. In that case 
the bread plate and the butter dish would be upon the table 
instead of on the serving table. 

In the second course the hot plates would be placed in a 
pile in front of the host and when filled would be passed to those 
at the table. The slaw should be placed on the table and served 
on the plates by some member of the family. 

The dessert course could either be dished in the individual 
dishes and placed on the serving table before luncheon was 
served or it could be served on thp table the same as the meat 
course. 






TABLE SETTING AND SERVING 117 

One member of the family could easily carry out the soiled 
dishes and bring in the next course, then quietly take her place 
at the table again. This would be excellent training for both 
girls and boys. 

JNOTJUS ON LABORATORY WORK. 



118 FOOD AND COOKERY 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

Plan a breakfast, lunch and dinner for one day. Make a 
list of the dishes and silver needed for each. Draw a diagram 
of a single cover for each, showing the arrangement of the silver 
and dishes. 

Send for dealers' catalogs of table silver and dishes. Paste 
cuts of the more attractive styles in your book with comments 
on their good and bad points. 



TABLE SETTING AND SERVING 119 



120 FOOD AND COOKERY 

HOME WORK. 

If possible, serve at home (1) a meal as you would if you 
were the hired waitress, (2) as you would if there were no maid 
to wait upon the table, (3) a meal where you act as hostess, 
pouring the coffee and serving the dessert. 

Comment in your note book on the results of your experi- 
ence. 



TABLE SETTING AND SERVING 121 

READING NOTES. 
Suggested Topic: 

Early Table Customs. 

References: 

Good Cheer, Hackwood. 
Book of Days, Chambers. 



122 



FOOD AND COOKERY 
EXERCISE VIII. 




EGGS. 

The common domestic hen's eggs are probably the most 
widely used form of animal food.- The eggs of ducks, geese, 
guinea fowls, turkeys, some wild birds and even the eggs of 
the ostrich are used to some extent as food. We also find that 
turtle's eggs and the eggs of some kinds of fish are considered 
delicacies by a great many people. Hen's eggs are, however, 
most commonly used the world over. 

The egg industry in the United States is extensive and is 
increasing in importance. In the last half of the year 1903, we 
exported 404,600 dozen eggs valued at $102,000. 



EMBRYO 



AIRSPACE 




XORDS OF TISSUE TO SUPPORT YOLK 
DIAGRAM SHOWING STRUCTURE OF EGG. 
(Redrawn from Wilson's Domestic Science in Elementary Schools.) 



EGGS 123 

Structure. 

The outer covering of the egg, the shell, is of course for 
protection. It is very brittle and if examined under the micro- 
scope will be found to be quite porous. Because of these two 
facts it is provided with a very tough lining membrane which 
helps to keep water in the egg from evaporating and also pre- 
vents the loss of the contents of the egg should the shell be 
slightly cracked. 

The white of the egg consists of a thick portion surrounded 
by a thin, watery portion. 

The yolk is enveloped in a very thin membrane and is 
kept in position in the center by two spiral shaped strings of 
tissue. On the yolk will be found a small, round, light colored 
spot. This spot is the embyro or germ from which the little 
chick is to develop. Just as starch is stored in the seed to 
nourish the little plant when it first begins to grow, so are the 
yolk and white of the egg placed there to supply the chick with 
nourishment until it is ready to leave the shell. 

Composition. 

Since the contents of the egg is to furnish the only nourish- 
ment the chicken receives until it is fully developed and ready 
to hatch, the egg must contain all the food elements necessary 
to sustain life. 

About one-sixth of the egg is albumin (a form of protein) 
used in building the different tissues of the chick. Seventy- 
four per cent is water to supply the water necessary in these 
tissues and in the circulating liquids. Fat, the most concen- 
trated form of heat producing food, is there in quite large quan- 
tity to furnish heat and muscular energy and lastly there are 
the mineral salts, especially lime, for the bones and other tissues. 



124 FOOD AND COOKERY 

The white of the egg is made up of albumin, water and 
mineral matter; the yolk contains water, albumin, fat, minerals 
and some coloring matter. 

Composition of edible portion of hen's egg compared with 
moderately lean meat (Bailey's Sanitary & Applied Chemistry) : 

Hen's Egg. Lean Meat. 
Water 73.7 73.0 

Fat . 10.5 5.5 

Protein 14.8 21.0 

Mineral Matter 1.0 1.0 

By comparing the composition of the egg with that of lean 
meat you will see that eggs make a good substitute for meat. 
Eight to ten eggs will weigh one pound and contain about the 
same nourishment that will be found in one pound of beef. 

As there is no starch or sugar present in the egg, eggs 
should be served with such foods as rice, bread, potatoes, etc., 
or made into desserts with sugar, tapioca, etc. 

Spoiling of Eggs. 

If eggs are kept for any length of time, some of the water 
will evaporate and bacteria-laden air will find its way into the 
egg. These bacteria soon cause the changes in the egg that we 
call spoiling. Sometimes if eggs are kept in a warm, damp 
place mold will form on the outside and push its way through 
the shell, ruining the contents of the egg as an article of food. 

Preservation of Eggs. 

To keep eggs from spoiling we must exclude the air from 
them. This can be done by coating them with a solution of 
water glass (silicate of soda). To preserve with silicate of soda, 
dissolve 4 C. of water glass in ten quarts of water, pack the eggs, 
small end down, in a stone jar, then pour over them the solution 






EGGS 



125 



of water glass until the eggs are completely covered. Cover 
the jar and place in a cool place. Eggs will keep all winter 
packed in this way. 

As bacteria need warmth if they are to grow and cause 
food to spoil, eggs can be kept from spoiling by being put in 
cold storage. Thousands of dozens of eggs are put into cold 
storage every summer and sold in the cities during the winter. 
Tests for Fresh Eggs. 

1. Drop the egg into a bowl of water. If it sinks it is fresh, 
if it stands on end it is not quite fresh and if it floats it is prob- 
ably spoiled. 





EGG TESTER. 

2. Hold the egg in front of a bright light and look through 
it. If it looks clear it is fresh, if it is opaque it is not fresh. This 
is called candling and is the test used by dealers before eggs 
are packed in cold storage. 
Effects, of Heat on Albumin. 

The word albumin comes from Albus, meaning white. Al- 
bumin hardens and turns white on being heated. 



126 FOOD AND COOKERY 

Experiments. 

Have two saucepans of boiling water. Break an egg care- 
fully into a saucer, remove one saucepan from the fire, slip the 
egg into the water. Cover the pan and set aside for eight min- 
utes. 

Break another egg into the other saucepan of boiling water. 
Keep the water boiling for three minutes. 

Examine the two eggs and see which is more tender. 

Test the temperature of the water in each saucepan. 

Albumin becomes firm and jelly-like at 160° F., and gets 
hard and tough, therefore less digestible, at 212° F., or the tem- 
perature of boiling water. If an egg is cooked below boiling 
temperature long enough (from 45 to 60 min.) the yolk will be 
dry and mealy and the white will be tender. The old way of 
boiling an egg ten minutes to have it "hard boiled" produced 
an egg in which the yolk was dark and the white tough and 
indigestible. 

Practical Hints. 

The shell of a fresh egg is rough, not smooth and shiny. 

Eggs should be kept in a cool, dry place. 

Eggs should always be washed before being used. 

When using several eggs, break them singly into a cup to 
be sure they are fresh. 

Cover an unbroken egg yolk with water and put it in the 
ice box and it will keep for several days. 

Rinse all egg dishes with cold water before washing them. 
Hot water hardens the albumin. 

The clean shells from uncooked eggs may be used to settle 
coffee. 






EGGS 127 

LABORATORY EXERCISES. 
Soft Cooked Eggs. 

1. Put water on to boil. 

2. Wash eggs. 

3. When water is boiling, place eggs in water, cover the 
saucepan and remove to the back of the stove for eight to ten 
minutes, where the water will keep hot but not boil. 

Note. — Have' the water completely cover the eggs while cooking. 

Hard Cooked Eggs. 

Follow the recipe for soft cooked eggs. Let the eggs stand 
in the hot water from forty-five minutes to one hour. 

Goldenrod Eggs. 

4 T. butter 2 C. milk 

3 T. flour 4 hard cooked eggs 

^ t. salt 6 slices toast 

1. Make a white sauce of the flour, butter, salt and milk. 

2. Cut the whites of the eggs into small pieces, add to the 
white sauce and pour over the toast. 

3. Rub the yolks through a strainer over the top of the 
toast. 

4. Garnish with parsley; serve hot. 

Creamed Eggs. 

6 hard cooked eggs 2 C. medium white sauce 

1. Cut eggs in halves lengthwise or in ^-inch slices cross, 
wise. 

2. Add to white sauce, reheat and serve with plain boiled 
potatoes. 



128 FOOD AND COOKERY 

Scrambled Eggs. 

6 eggs | t. salt 

C. milk 2 T. butter 



3 



1. Beat eggs slightly. Add milk and salt. 

2. Melt butter in upper part of the double boiler, add the 
egg mixture, place over hot water and stir constantly until it 
becomes creamy. 

3. Kemove from fire, turn into hot dish or pour over slices 
of toast, garnish with parsley and serve immediately. 

Note. — If cooked too long, the eggs will separate and you will 
have a mixture of hard, lumps of egg and water. 

French Omelet. 

2 eggs i t. salt 

2 T. milk or water 2 t. butter 

1. Beat eggs slightly, add salt and milk. 

2. Melt the butter in a frying pan and pour in the egg 
mixture. As the egg thickens, lift it slightly with a fork or 
knife, letting the uncooked part run underneath. 

3. When creamy all through roll it up, rolling 'toward the 
left side of the pan and turn onto a hot platter. Serve at once. 

Poached Egg on Toast. 

6 eggs 6 slices toast 

butter, salt, pepper. 

1. Make toast. 

2. Have ready a shallow pan of water that is boiling gently. 

3. Break eggs carefully into a saucer and slip them into 



EGGS 129 

the water. Do not break the yolks. Have the water cover the 
eggs. 

4. Remove the pan from the fire and let stand until the 
white is firm and a thin film covers the yolks. 

5. Lift the eggs out carefully with a perforated skimmer 
and place on toast that has been slightly buttered. 

6. Dust eggs lightly with salt and pepper and serve imme- 
diately. 



130 FOOD AND COOKERY 

b,„ NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 



EGGS 131 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

1. Why does a stale egg float in water? 

2. How many eggs will the average hen lay in a year? 

3. At what season of the year are eggs most plentiful? 

4. If yon were going to raise chickens to sell what would 
be a good breed to raise? 

5. If you wanted them for the eggs would you choose the 
same kind? See Farmers' Bulletins. 



132 FOOD AND COOKERY 

READING NOTES. 



EGGS 
HOME WORK. 



133 



Date- 



Name of Dish. 



Result. 



Remarks. 




134 FOOD AND COOKERY 

EXERCISE IX. 





' : %v--' 



MILK. 

Cows have been found to give more milk of a good quality 
for a given amount of feed and care than any other milk-giving 
animal. For this reason, wherever the climate is suitable, cow's 
milk is used almost exclusively. In some parts of the world 
other kinds of milk are used — goat's milk in the hilly districts of 
Europe, llama's milk in South America, the milk of the buffalo 
in India, mare 's milk in Russia and camel 's milk on the deserts, 
while in the Arctic regions they usually use the milk of the rein- 
deer. 

Two-thirds of all the milk produced in the United States is 
used for butter and cheese. In the year 1903 there was enough 
milk and cream sold in the United States to have furnished every 
man, woman and child with thirty gallons. It has been estimated 
that milk and cream together furnish sixteen per cent of the 
total food of the average American family. Every child should 
take in some form a quart of milk a day throughout the period of 
growth. 



MILK 135 

Composition. 

As milk is the sole food of the young of mammals for a 
length of time varying from a few weeks to several months, milk, 
like the egg, must contain all the food elements necessary to 
sustain life. All milk is made up of protein, fat, sugar, water 
and mineral matter but there is quite a difference in the propor- 
tion of each ingredient found in the milk from different animals. 
Even the milk of the same animal will differ greatly at different 
times. 

Average composition of cow's milk: 

Water 87.0% 

Protein (casein and albumin) 3.3% 
Fat 4.0% 

Carbohydrates (milk sugar) 5.0% 
Mineral matter .7% 

While milk is a perfect food for the young animal for which 
it was intended, the various ingredients are not in the right 
proportion to form the only food of an adult. There is not 
enough carbohydrate to furnish the required amount of energy 
and there is so much water that it would be far too bulky a 
food for a grown person. Taken with carbohydrate foods, how- 
ever, it forms a valuable addition to the diet. 

The fat of milk is in the form of little globules floating in 
the milk. These fat globules being lighter than the rest of the 
milk, rise to the top, forming the yellowish layer known as 
cream. There is always some milk mixed with the cream and 
by the process of churning the fat globules are made to separate 
from the milk and stick together in the form of lumps of butter. 

Skim milk (milk from which the cream has been removed) 
deserves a more important place in the daily dietary than is 



136 FOOD AND COOKERY 

usually given it. It contains all the constituents of the milk 
except the fat and a small per cent of the protein and can usually 
be substituted for whole milk in cooking. In the cities we 
generally pay almost as much for cream as we should have to 
pay for the whole milk from which the cream was taken. It 
would therefore be economy to buy the whole milk, remove the 
cream and have the skim milk left to use about the cooking. 

Casein and albumin are the two kinds of protein found in 
milk. Casein is the more abundant and forms the greater part 
of the curd of milk used in making cheeses of all kinds. The 
albumin is more soluble and will be found in the watery portion 
of the milk after the curd has been separated from it. The 
casein can be made to separate from the milk by adding an acid 
as in the case of the natural souring of the milk or by the use 
of rennet, a digestive fluid taken from the lining of the calf's 
stomach. 

The whey, after it has been separated from the curd contains 
the water, sugar, albumin, most of the mineral matter and a 
little of the fat. While the per cent of food material contained 
in the whey is small, it is sometimes used for invalids and 
persons of weak digestion. If the white of an egg be dissolved 
in it and fruit juice added for flavoring it makes a nutritious 
and palatable food that can sometimes be taken when whole 
milk could not be digested. 

Milk sugar is not so sweet as cane sugar and is more easily 
digested. It occurs in quite a large quantity and is an import- 
ant commercial product of milk. It should always be used in 
preparing modified milk for babies. Cane sugar is not a substi- 
tute for it. 

In the natural souring of milk, certain bacteria, called lactic 
acid bacteria, get into the milk from the air and change some 






MILK 137 

of the milk sugar to an acid. This acid gives the sour taste to 
milk and also causes the casein to separate from the whey. Bac- 
teria work faster when kept slightly warm (from 80° to 100° 
F.). For this reason we warm the milk in making cottage 
cheese, so that the curd will separate from the whey more 
quickly. 

The mineral matter is more abundant in milk than in most 
of the common foods. Lime salts, so necessary in building bone, 
is one of the most important minerals found in the milk. 

Care of Milk. 

Milk and butter absorb odors and impurities readily. They 
should be kept in covered dishes in a cool, clean place. Milk 
dishes should be used for milk only. They should be scalded and 
then turned upside down to drain and cool before the milk is 
put into them. 

Milk almost always contains bacteria of many kinds. "The 
amount of bacteria in milk of a given age varies with the 
conditions; that from clean, healthy cows, with freshly washed 
udders, milked into well-scalded pails, in a clean place, free 
from air currents, by persons with clean hands and clothes, if 
quickly cooled and carefully handled may contain very few, 
while milk from ill-kept animals, untidily handled in a dirty 
place may contain enormous quantities.'' Farmers' Bulletin 
No. 363. 

These bacteria may be killed by sterilization. This process 
however, changes the taste of the milk and makes it less digest- 
ible. Pasteurization does not injure the milk as much but it 
only partially destroys the bacterial life in the milk. 

The wisest plan is to use milk that you know comes from 
a perfectly sanitary dairy. In case this cannot be procured, 



138 



FOOD AND COOKERY 



pasteurize the milk at home until you can obtain clean raw 
milk. 




Pasteurized Milk. 

1. Put milk into scalded bottles. 

2. Cork the bottles with cotton that has been baked in 
the oven until a light yellow. 

3. Put an inverted, perforated pie tin in the bottom of a 
pail or kettle and set the bottles of milk on the tin. 

4. Fill kettle with cold water until it reaches the top of 
the milk. 



MILK 139 

5. Heat the water to 160° F. or until small bubbles appear 
on top of the milk next to the glass. 

6. Kemove from the stove, cover kettle and let stand for 
twenty minutes. 

7. Take bottles out of hot water and cool in water. .Have 
water slightly warm at first so as not to break the bottles. 
Keep adding cold water until the milk is cold, then place in 
ice box until ready to use. Do not remove the cotton stoppers 
until you are ready to use the milk. 

Sterilized Milk. 

1. Put milk in clean granite kettle and bring to full boil. 

2. Cover tightly and let stand a few hours. 

3. Repeat this process three times, then put milk into ster- 
ilized bottles and cork with sterilized cotton. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES. 
Butter. 

1 C. cream -J t. salt 

1. Put cream into a pint Mason jar and screw cover down 
tightly. 

2. Shake the jar until lumps of fat appear. 

3. Scald a wooden spoon or butter paddle, then chill it. 

4. Gather the particles of butter into a ball and work with 
wooden spoon under cold water to wash out the sour buttermilk. 

5. Put into bowl and press out the water. 

6. Work the salt into the butter and put in a covered dish 
in a cool place. 



140 FOOD AND COOKERY 

Cottage Cheese No. 1. 

1 qt. sour milk -J t. salt 

1 T. butter cream to moisten 

1. Remove the cream and put aside to use in moistening 
the cheese. 

2. Heat the milk in double boiler. Let the water in the 
lower part of the boiler just simmer. If milk gets too hot the 
curd will be tough and stringy. 

3. When the curd separates from the whey, strain through 
a cheese cloth. Let the whey drip out; do not squeeze dry. 
If the milk is rather sour, pour cold water through the curd and 
let it drain out. 

4. Add the salt, butter and cream to the curd and stir 
until smooth. 

Note. — Cottage cheese may he served plain or may have carraway 
seed or chopped chives, parsley, olives or pimentoes mixed with it. 
It may be served on a 'lettuce leaf with a spoonfid of mayonnaise or 
boiled dressing as a salad or it may be used as a filling for sandiviches. 

Cottage Cheese No. 2. 

1 qt. sweet milk 1 T. butter 

1 rennet tablet or 1 T. pepsin -J t. salt 

cream to moisten 

If you do not like the slightly sour taste of cottage cheese 
No. 1 or have no sour milk on hand, use the foregoing recipe, 
No. 2. 

1. Heat sweet milk in double boiler to 100° F. or to body 
temperature. 

2. Dissolve the rennet tablet in a little cool milk, and stir 
into the warm milk. 









MILK 141 

3. Let stand until the curd has set, then stir with a spoon 
to break up the curds. 

4. Strain through cheese cloth and proceed as for Cottage 
Cheese No. 1. 



Rennet Dessert. 

3 C. milk 1 t. vanilla 

3 T. sugar f of one rennet tablet 

1. Heat milk in double boiler until hike warm or the same 
as body temperature. (If too warm the rennet will not act.) 

2. Dissolve rennet tablet in 1 T. luke warm water. Add 
this with sugar and vanilla to the milk. 

3. Stir well and pour into molds or into cups in which 
it is to be served and let stand in a warm room to stiffen. When 
firm set in the ice box to chill. (Do not shake nor stir the custard 
after it has been put into the moulds or the curds and whey 
will separate.) 

4. Serve plain or with chocolate sauce. 

Chocolate Sauce. 

2 T. cocoa i T. cornstarch 

i C. sugar i C. water 

1. Mix cocoa, sugar and cornstarch together. 

2. Add water and boil two minutes, stirring constantly. 

3. Pour carefully over the custard. (Rennet custard is 
very tender and breaks easily.) 



142 FOOD AND COOKERY 

NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 

What other ways are there of using sour cream and milk 
besides making butter and cheese? 

Would it pay to buy cream and milk at retail prices to make 
butter and cheese? Figure the cost of home-made and factory 
made butter per ounce. 



MILK 143 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

1. Where do the cheese and butter factories get their sup- 
plies of milk and cream? 

2. What determines the price paid for milk and cream at 
these factories! 

3. Would the skimmed milk be of enough value to the 
farmer to pay for buying and using a cream separator? 

4. Investigate kinds and prices of separators and churns. 

5. What is the Babcock apparatus? How is it used? 



144 FOOD AND COOKERY 

READING NOTES. 

Read the laws of your state and city in regard to the sale 
and care of milk and milk products. 

Why does the state interest itself in this matter? 






10 



MILK 
HOME WORK. 



145 



Date. 



Name of Dish. 



Results. 



Remarks. 




146 



FOOD AND COOKERY 
EXERCISE X. 




CUSTARDS. 

A custard is a combination of milk and eggs, sweetened 
and flavored, then baked or steamed. Thudichum, in the Spirit 
of Cookery, implies that custards were originally invented as 
a cheap substitute for thick cream. Custards now, have their 
own place in cookery, supplying important food elements that 
would not be supplied by even the best of cream. The word 
custard was once spelled custade, from the French crustade, a 
pie with a crust. It has now come to mean the filling of the 
custard pie rather than the crust of the pie. 

Kinds of Custards. 

Custards are either soft or stiff custards according to the 
way in which they are cooked and the proportion of egg to milk 
they contain. For soft custards two whole eggs or the yolks 



CUSTARDS 147 

of three are used with one pint of milk. For stiff custards, three 
whole eggs or five yolks are needed to thicken one pint of milk. 
Soft custards are cooked in the double boiler and stirred con- 
stantly while cooking. They are as thick as heavy cream when 
done. Stiff custards are baked in greased molds, surrounded 
by water or steamed until they are firm. 

Composition. 

As protein is the chief ingredient in all custards, they 
should be cooked below boiling temperature. The double boiler 
is used for soft custards and stiff custards are set into a pan of 
water to bake. Occasionally starchy foods, such as tapioca, 
sago, rice, etc., are combined with custards. In that case the 
starchy food should be cooked for some time before it is added 
to the egg mixture. 

Tests for Custards. 

A soft custard is done (1) when it coats the spoon, (2) 
when it feels thick as you stir it and (3) when the foam dis- 
appears from the top. 

A stiff custard is done when a knife dipped into the center 
of it will come out clean. 

Hints in Making Custards. 

1. Custards are always strained to remove the strings of 
tissue that hold the yolk of the egg in place. Soft custards are 
strained after cooking, stiff custards before cooking. 

2. The milk should be scalded to be sure that it is sweet 
and to hasten the process of cooking. 

3. In combining the egg and hot milk or whatever liquid 
is used in making the custard, always pour the hot milk onto the 



148 FOOD AND COOKERY 

egg, stirring constantly. Do not pour the egg into the milk. If 
a thin stream of egg should be poured into the whole quantity 
of hot milk there would be enough heat in the milk to quickly 
harden the albumin in the egg and you would have a lumpy 
custard. If the milk is poured into the egg slowly, the egg 
will cool the milk enough so that they will combine to form a 
smooth custard. 

4. If a custard is cooked too long or at too high a tempera- 
ture it will curdle. Should this happen to a soft custard, set 
the upper part of the double boiler into cold water immediately 
and beat with the Dover egg beater until the custard seems 
smooth, then strain it. If a stiff custard should curdle there is 
no remedy. 

5. Add flavoring extracts to soft custards after they are 
cold, otherwise the heat will cause the flavoring to evaporate. 

6. Custards are usually served very cold. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES. 

Baked Custard. 

2 C. scalded milk 4 T. sugar 

3 whole eggs or 5 yolks spk. salt 

nutmeg 

1. Scald milk in double boiler. 

2. Beat eggs slightly and add sugar and salt. 

3. Add hot milk slowly, stirring constantly. 

4. Strain into greased cups and grate nutmeg over the top. 

5. Set into a pan of water and bake in a slow oven 
until firm. (Dip a silver knife into the center of the custard, 
if it comes out clean the custard is done.) 

6. Set in ice box to chill. 



CUSTARDS 149 

7. . When cold turn out of molds and serve plain or with 
preserved fruit. If the custard has been made with the yolks 
of eggs, it may be served with a soft custard sauce made with 
the whites, making a yellow and white dessert. 

Soft Custard. 

2 C. milk 4 T. sugar 

2 eggs or 3 yolks or 3 whites spk. salt 
\ t. vanilla 

1. Scald milk in double boiler. 

2. Beat eggs slightly and add sugar and salt. (If the 
custard is made with the whites of the eggs add 2 T. of the cold 
milk to them before beating to keep them from being frothy.) 

3. Add hot milk slowly, stirring constantly. 

4. Cook in double boiler until thick. Stir while cooking to 
prevent lumping. 

5. Remove from fire, strain and when cold add vanilla. 

6. Serve as sauce for puddings, baked custards, etc., or 
may be served plain with cake as a simple dessert. 

Floating Island. 

2 C. scalded milk spk. salt 

3 egg yolks i t. vanilla 

4 T. granulated sugar 3 egg whites 

3 T. powdered sugar 

1. Make, soft custard of first five ingredients. 

2. Just before you are ready to serve, beat the whites of 
the eggs as stiffly as possible, then add the powdered sugar. (If 
allowed to stand long after being beaten the whites will settle 
and become watery.) 

3. Pile the whites on the custard and serve cold. 



150 FOOD AND COOKERY 

Note. — Cocoanut or boiled rice may be added to the custard be- 
fore the whites are put on or the cocoanut may be sprinkled over the 
whites. 

Tapioca Cream. 

2 T. minute tapioca or ^ C. sugar 

4 T. pearl tapioca spk. salt 

2 C. scalded milk 1 t. vanilla 
2 eggs 

1. Cook tapioca in milk until it is transparent. (The pearl 
tapioca will take longer to cook than the minute tapioca.) 

2. Beat eggs and add sugar and salt. 

3. Pour hot tapioca over the egg mixture, stirring con- 
stantly. 

4. Cook in double boiler until it thickens. 

5. When cool add flavoring. Serve cold. 

Note. — Tapioca cream may be made with the yolks of the eggs and 
a meringue made of the whites the same as for Floating Island. Fruit 
tapioca may be made by pouring the tapioca custard over any kind of 
sliced fruit, either fresh or canned. 

Strawberry Custard. 

2 C. scalded milk J t. vanilla 

3 egg yolks 3 egg whites 

4 T. sugar 3 T. powdered sugar 

spk. salt 1 C. preserved strawberries 

stale cake 

1. Make custard of first five ingredients. 

2. Cut stale cake in triangular shaped pieces and cover 
the bottom of a glass dish with them. 



CUSTARDS 151 

3. Add layer of strawberries then another layer of cake 
and pour the custard over all. 

4. Make a meringue of the whites and pile on top of the 
custard just before serving. Serve very cold. 



152 FOOD AND COOKERY 

NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 



CUSTARDS 153 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

1. What is tapioca? 

2. What is the difference between pearl tapioca and minute 
tapioca? 

3. Why do you cook the tapioca in the milk before adding 
the eggs? 



154 FOOD AND COOKERY 

BEADING NOTES. 



CUSTARDS 
HOME WORK. 



155 



Date. 



Name of Dish. 



Results. 



Remarks. 




156 



FOOD AND COOKERY 








MEAT 
EXERCISE XI. 



157 



MEAT. 

The word meat usually means the flesh of cattle, pigs and 
sheep. The word poultry is used for the flesh of chickens, geese, 
turkeys and all domestic fowls; while the flesh of wild animals 
such as deer, moose, rabbits, quail, partridges, etc., is called 
game. 

The market name for the flesh of the ox is beef; calf is veal; 
hog is pork; sheep is mutton; lamb is lamb; and deer is venison. 

Structure. 







Hgfl 

II i Nffl frVj» r 13n 




DIAGRAM SHOWING STRUCTURE OF MEAT, 
a. Muscle fiber, b. Connective tissue, c. Fat globule. 

Under the microscope, lean meat will be seen to be made up 
of muscle fibers lying very close together, wrapped with a thin, 
tough membrane called connective tissue. Between the fibers are 
fat globules in greater or less quantity according to the age and 
condition of the animal. These muscle fibers are tubes filled 
with protein. When the animal is alive the protein is in a liquid 



158 FOOD AND COOKERY 

form. Soon after the animal is killed the protein thickens and 
the muscles become stiff and hard. If the meat is allowed to 
hang in cold storage for a number of days the protein again 
becomes liquid and the walls of the tubes become softer and 
more tender. 

Muscle fibers vary in length. The shorter the fiber the 
more tender and digestible the meat. Meat will be more tender 
when it is cooked if it is cut across the grain of the meat or 
at right angles to the length of the fibers. 

The older the animal and the more the muscle is used 
the thicker will be the walls of the muscle fibers and the more 
connective tissue there will be around the fibers, consequently 
the meat will be tougher. This meat is juicier and richer in 
flavor, however, than the more tender portions. Also the kind 
of feed upon which the animal has fed affects the flavor and 
tenderness of the meat. 



Cuts of Meat. 



The methods of cutting up an animal for the market and 
the names by which the different cuts are known vary some- 
what in different localities. The following diagrams will give 
the relative location of the more common cuts of beef, veal, lamb 
and pork, both in the animal before it is dressed and in the 
dressed side as it hangs in the meat market. 



MEAT 
USES OF DIFFERENT CUTS. 



159 




BEEF. 



1. Neck 


8. Navel 


2. Chuck 


9. Loin 


3. Ribs 


10. Flank 


4. Shoulder clod 


11. Rump 


5. Shank 


12. Round 


6. Brisket 


13. Second cut of 


7. Plate 


round 




Beef. 

Neck — soups and stews. 

Chuck — roasts, pot roasts and steaks. 

Ribs — the first six, beginning at the loin are used for 
roasts. The third, fourth and fifth ribs are the best and are 
called prime ribs. 

Short ribs — the lower ends of the rib roasts are used for 
braising. 

Shoulder clod — roasts and pot roasts. 

Shank — soups. 



160 



FOOD AND COOKERY 



Brisket — corning and stews. 

Plate and navel — corning and stews. 

Loin — steaks (sirloin and porterhouse). 

Flank — corning, flank steak. 

Rump — steaks, roasts, pot roast and boiling beef. 

Round — steaks and Hamburg. 

Tongue — boiled either fresh or salted. 

Tail — oxtail soup. 




VEAL. 



1, Neck 


6. Ribs 


2. Chuck 


7. Loin 


3. Shoulder 


8. Flank 


4. Fore shank 


9. Leg 


5. Breast 


10. Hind shank 




Veal. 



Head — mock turtle soup. 
Neck — stews and pot pie. 
Shoulder — roast or chops. 
Breast — stews and roast (stuffed) 
Ribs — chops. 
Loin — chops; thick end — roasts. 



li 



MEAT 



161 



Leg — upper part, veal steak or cutlets; lower part— roast 
or fillet. 

Shank or knuckle — soups and stews. 
Feet — calf 's-foot jelly. 




LAMB. 



1. Neck 

2. Chuck 

3. Shoulder 



4. Flank 

5. Loin 

6. Leg 




Lamb. 



Very young lamb, sometimes called ' * hot-house lamb," 
whole forequarter or whole hindquarter used for roast. 

When it is a little older, the rib chops are cut off making a 
short forequarter roast. The hindquarter is used as a roast the 
same as in " hot-house lamb." 

Just under a year old : 

Neck — broth and stews. 

Chuck — chops and stews. 



162 



FOOD AND COOKERY 



Shoulder — roast. 

Flank — stews and breading. 

Loin — chops. 

Leg — roasts. 




PORK. 



1. Head 


5. Belly 


2. Shoulder 


6. Ham 


3. Back 


7. Ribs 


4. Middle cut 


8. Loin 




Pork. 

Head — head cheese or souse. 

Shoulder — roasted fresh or pickled and smoked and sold 
as New England ham or cottage ham. 

Back — roast. 

Middle cut — spareribs; the outer layer of fat is cut off and 
used for lard. 

Belly — salt pork and bacon. 

Ham — roasted fresh or pickled and smoked. 

Upper part of ribs — chops or roast. 

Loin — chops or roast. 






MEAT 



163 



Fat—lard. 

Trimmings of lean from the shoulders, hams, etc., used for 
sausage. 




CHUCK STEAK. 



Beefsteaks. 



The most common beefsteaks are 

1. The chuck steak is found in the region of the shoulder 
blade. It is somewhat stringy and the lean is streaked with fat. 
It usually contains an "L" shaped bone, which is a cross section 
of the shoulder blade. 



164 



FOOD AND COOKERY 




,% ;: ft:> 




: *# f . 



PORTERHOUSE STEAK. 



2. The porterhouse steak, sometimes called short steak, 
tenderloin steak or Delmonico steak, is found between the ribs 
and the hip bone, and has a "T" shaped bone in it. The cuts 
nearest the ribs have meat only on one side of the bone. When 
the cut is far enough back to reach the tenderloin muscle there 
will be meat on both sides of the bone and the further back the 
cut is made, the larger will be the tenderloin part of the steak. 
This is the tenderest, but not the best flavored part of the animal. 
It is also the most expensive cut. 



MEAT 



165 




LOIN STEAK. 

3. Loin steak is found in the region of the hip bone. It 
will contain a round bone, a broad flat bone or a long bone accord- 
ing to the cut. This is a tender, good flavored steak. 




ROUND STEAK. 



4. Round steak is cut from the upper part of the hind leg. 
It is oval in shape and contains a small round bone. 



166 FOOD AND COOKERY 




FLANK STEAK. 

5. There are two flank steaks in each animal, lying next 
to the inner surface of the flank. This steak has no bone, is oval 
in shape, dark in color, with the muscle fibers running length- 
wise. 
Composition. 

Meat and poultry supply sixteen per cent of the total food 
material, thirty per cent of the protein and fifty-nine per cent 
of the fat in the American dietary. The carbohydrate foods 
supply a larger per cent of protein in the average diet than does 
meat, but the protein found in these vegetable foods is generally 
admitted to be in a less available form. Meat, therefore, is really 
our most important source of protein food, though it is also a 
very expensive source. 
Average Composition of Very Lean Beef. 

Water 75.90% 

Protein (myosin, albumin, fibrin) 18.36% 
Gelatine 1.64% 

Extractives . 1.90% 

Fat .90% 

Minerals 1.30% 



MEAT 167 

Meat contains a large amount of water but, unlike the car- 
bohydrates, it does not take up more water in cooking. Even 
when cooked in water it tends to lose rather than gain in 
weight. 

Gelatine is obtained from the connective tissues of the 
meat and the cartilage of the bone by long boiling. It is the 
gelatine that has been drawn from the meat and bone that 
often causes the broth from veal to stiffen like jelly when cold. 
Gelatine has somewhat the same chemical composition as pro- 
tein but it will not build new tissue. It will furnish heat and 
energy. 

The extractives give flavor to the meat and act as stimu- 
lants. Beef extracts and cleared soups contain only the extrac- 
tives and a little gelatine. They do not contain any appreciable 
amount of nourishment. 

Even lean meat contains a small amount of fat, though it 
may be invisible to the naked eye. Very fat meat is not as 
digestible as lean meat, probably because the fat forms a coat- 
ing around the protein and prevents the action of the digestive 
juices. 

The muscle tubes are filled with the "juice" of the meat 
which is made up of protein, extractives, minerals and water. 
As the juice contains a large per cent of the nutriment and 
almost all of the flavor it is important to know how to retain 
the greater part of it in the meat during the preparation of the 
meat for the table. A few experiments will give some rules to 
follow. 

Ex. 1. Put a piece of raw beef into half a glass of water 
and let it stand ten or fifteen minutes. Notice the color of 
the water. Heat the water and notice the coagulated albumin 
floating on the surface. 



168 FOOD AND COOKERY 

Ex. 2. Take a piece of meat the same size as the one used 
in the previous experiment, cut it in small pieces and put it 
into half a glass of water and let it stand the same length of 
time. Which is the deeper color! Which contains more albu- 
min? 

Ex. 3. Put two pieces of beef on white plates. Sprinkle 
one liberally with salt and let both stand ten minutes. Notice 
the juice around the piece that was salted. 

Ex. 4. As meat is largely protein, we would expect to 
cook it below boiling temperature to keep it from being tough. 
Put a piece of meat in a cold skillet, place the skillet on the 
stove where the meat will cook very slowly. Notice the moisture 
in the pan around the meat. 

Ex. 5. Take another piece of meat, heat the pan very hot 
and sear the meat on all sides, then turn the fire down to finish 
cooking. Notice that there is almost no moisture in the pan 
around the meat. The coating of albumin formed by searing 
the meat on all sides holds in the juices. 

In broiled, roasted or boiled meat we wish to keep the 
juices in the meat; in soups we wish to draw all of the juices 
out into the broth, and in stews we want part of the juice in 
the meat and part of it in the gravy. 

Cooking of Meats. 

Meat is cooked to give it a better flavor and make it more 
palatable, to soften the connective tissue and to kill any para- 
sites that may be in the meat. 

Beef and mutton may be served rare, that is, the inside 
of the meat should be pink in color. If it is purple it has not 
been cooked enough, if it is white it has been cooked too much. 
Veal and pork should be well done. 



MEAT 169 

Only the tenderest cuts should be broiled or roasted. The 
tougher parts need long, slow cooking in water. If a small 
amount of vinegar be added to the water in which meat is cooked 
it will help to soften the fibers and make the meat more tender. 
A tablespoonful of vinegar spread over a steak half an hour 
before it is cooked will make it less tough. 

Frying is cooking in fat enough to float the food. 

Santeing is cooking in a small amount of fat. (Often 
improperly called frying. ) 

Broiling is cooking with just enough fat to keep the food 
from sticking to the pan or broiler. 

Note. — Broiling may be done over the coals or under the gas flame 
or in an iron frying pan. In pan broiling the fat should be drained 
off as fast as it cooks out of the meat. Steaks or chops for broiling 
should be cut at least one inch thick. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES. 

Pan Broiled Steak. 

1. Wipe the steak on all sides with a cloth wrung out of 
cold water. 

2. Heat a cast iron frying pan almost red hot, rub a piece 
of suet over the pan and put in the meat. 

3. Cook it on one side for ten seconds then turn it over and 
cook the other side for ten seconds. When it is well seared on 
all sides reduce the temperature and let it cook a little more 
slowly until the meat is pink on the inside, turning it occasion- 
ally. Test it by cutting into the meat next to the bone. 

4. Season with salt, pepper and butter and serve on a hot 
platter immediately. 



170 FOOD AND COOKERY 

Hamburg Steak. 

1 lb. chopped beef i t. pepper 

1 t. salt 2 T. chopped parsley 

1 t. lemon juice \ C. crumbs 

1. Wipe meat with a wet cloth and put through the food 
chopper. 

2. Mix all ingredients together, form into balls one inch 
thick and broil. 

Note. — Bo not buy ready-ground meat. Buy the meat and grind 
it yourself. The butcher will not wash the meat before he grinds it 
and his chopper may not be clean. 

Creole Steak. 

1 lb. chopped round 1 egg yolk 
i C. tomato pulp 1 t. salt 

h C. bread crumbs i t. pepper 
1 slice onion 

1. Wash and grind meat. 

2. Mix ingredients together and form into loaf. 

3. Bake in covered pan in moderate oven i hour, then 
uncover and brown. 

4. Serve with tomato sauce. 

Note. — See Exercise II for recipe for Tomato Sauce. 

Beef Stew. 

1| lbs. beef 3 carrots 

6 small potatoes 3 T. flour 

1 onion salt and pepper 

1 . Wash meat and cut in one inch cubes. 



MEAT 171 

2. Melt some of the fat in the bottom of the pan, add one- 
third of the meat and brown in the fat. 

3. Add the rest of the meat and enough cold water to 
cover. 

4. Bring quickly to the simmering point and simmer until 
meat is slightly tender. 

5. Add vegetables, salt, and pepper and cook until the 
vegetables are done. 

6. Remove the vegetables and meat from the liquid, make 
a smooth paste of the flour and a little cold water and add to 
the liquid. Let boil until slightly thick, stirring constantly. 

7. Arrange meat and vegetables in the center of a hot 
platter and pour the gravy over all. 

Beef Pot Roast. 

3 lbs. of beef (rump or shoulder clod). 
1 C. tomatoes 1 large onion 

1 rounding t. salt 

1. Wipe meat with wet cloth. 

2. Heat kettle very hot. Melt some of the fat and sear 
the meat on all sides. 

3. Slice the onion in the bottom of the kettle, place the 
meat on the onion and pour the tomato over the meat. 

4. Cover the kettle closely and place on the back of the 
stove where the meat will cook slowly for two and one-half 
hours. Add salt when meat has been cooking one hour. 

5. When the meat is done remove to a hot platter. 

6. Add a small amount of water to the broth in the kettle. 
Make a smooth thickening of flour and water and add to the 
broth. Boil two or three minutes, stirring constantly. 

7. Strain gravy to remove bits of onion and tomato. 



172 FOOD AND COOKERY 

Veal Loaf. 

2 lbs. chopped veal 3 T. cream or milk 
^ lb. chopped fat 1 t. pepper 

salt pork 2 t. salt 

\ C. cracker crumbs 1 egg well beaten 

1. Wash the meat and remove the skin, bone and mem- 
brane. Put through the food chopper. 

2. Add the rest of the ingredients, mix well and pack into 
a well greased bread pan. 

3. Cover with greased paper and bake in slow oven two 
hours. 

4. When cold remove from pan and slice thinly. 

Broiled Bacon. 

1. Scrape bacon, slice very thinly and remove rind. 

2. Place slices on a fine wire broiler, place broiler over a 
dripping pan and bake in a hot oven until the bacon is crisp and 
brown, turning once. 

3. Drain on soft paper. 

4. Serve with poached egg and apple sauce. 

Note. — Bacon may be pan broiled if the' fat is poured, off as fast 
as it cooks out of the meat. 

Apple Sauce. 

6 apples i C. sugar 

^ C. water spk. nutmeg 

1. Wash, pare, core and slice apples. 

2. Put into porcelain kettle, add water and cook until 
apples are very soft. 

3. Add sugar and nutmeg, stir until sugar is dissolved, 
then beat with wire spoon until light. 



MEAT 173 

NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 

1. How would yon wash a piece of meat before cooking it 1 
Answer : 

2. How would you regulate the temperature of the oven 
for a roast! 

Answer: 

3. When would you salt a steak? 
Answer : 

4. How would you form the coating of albumin on the 
outside of a piece of boiling beef to prevent the escape of the 
juices ? 

Answer : 

5. What temperature would you have the water into which 
you put the meat for soup? 

Answer : 

6. When would you salt it? 
Answer : 

7. At what temperature would you cook it? 
Answer : 

8. What difference would you make in the preparation of 
a stew? 

Answer : 



174 FOOD AND COOKERY 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

1. What is the federal government doing to protect us 
against the sale of unwholesome meat? 

2. If the government pays for this inspection why does 
the consumer have to pay a higher price than he would if the 
meat were not inspected? 

3. Against what dangers are we guarded by these precau- 
tions of the Department of Agriculture? 

4. Draw a map of the United States and locate the chief 
beef-packing centers. 



^ 



MEAT 175 

READING NOTES. 

Suggested Topics: 

Cattle Raising in the U. S. 
Argentine Beef. 






176 



FOOD AND COOKERY 
HOME WORK. 



Date. 



Name of Dish. 



Results. 



Remarks. 







BEVERAGES 
EXERCISE XII. 



177 




BEVERAGES. 

The word beverage comes from the French word, meaning 
to drink. We drink to satisfy thirst and as thirst is the natural 
craving of the body for water, pure water should be a part of 
every one's daily diet. We have been so long accustomed to 
pleasing the appetite with the flavor of different kinds of bev- 
erages that we have almost lost sight of the fact that their chief 
value is in the water that they contain. Some of these flavoring 
materials, however, have a stimulating and refreshing effect and 
some have a slight food value. Tea, coffee, and cocoa are the 
most widely used beverages. 



TEA. 



History. 



Tea has been grown in China and Japan for more than 
1,500 years, and, although it was not introduced into Europe 



178 



FOOD AND COOKERY 



until the seventeenth century, it is now used daily by more than 
half of the inhabitants of the world. Great Britain uses more 
tea than any other English speaking nation. China, Japan, India, 
Ceylon and Java are the greatest tea growing countries. A 
small amount of tea is grown in the United States in the Southern 
and Gulf States. Farmers' Bulletin No. 321 gives an interesting 
account of our "Home Grown Tea." 




TEA PLANT. 

a. Pekoe, b. Souchong, c. Congou. 



Manufacture. 



Tea is made from the young leaves of the tea plant, a flowering 
shrub belonging to the camellia family. The many different 
varieties of tea may all come from the same plant, the size ot 
the leaf, the care in handling and picking and the method of 
curing contributing to the differences in the teas when they are 
finally ready for market. 

The tea made from the first tiny leaves on the plant is called 






i 



BEVERAGES 179 

Pekoe or Flowery or Orange Pekoe. The word pekoe means hair, 
the young leaves being covered with a. long silky hair. This 
makes the finest flavored tea and is very expensive, sometimes 
bringing as much as twenty dollars a ponnd. The leaves next 
lower down on the stalk are used for Souchong tea and some- 
times the still larger leaves are used for a tea called Congou 
Each plant furnishes from three to four pickings a year. 

Any of these teas may be black or green according to 
the way in which they are cured. • 

For green tea the leaves are put into ovens to be roasted 
as soon as they are picked. They are then rolled by hand and 
again roasted for several hours. When the tea is ready for 
market it is a dark green color. Artificial coloring is sometimes 
used but the United States government has now passed a law 
prohibiting the sale of artificially colored teas in this country. 

The leaves for black tea are allowed to stand in the sun to 
wither after picking. They are then worked by hand and moist- 
ened, then left in piles to ferment. They are finally dried in 
a charcoal furnace. During this drying or roasting process 
the leaves turn black. 

These teas are then sorted and packed in lead-lined boxes 
ready for shipping to foreign markets. 

Composition. 

The most important ingredients of tea are theine, tannic 
acid and a light oil that gives to the tea its characteristic odor. 
The theine is a mild stimulant that is beneficial to adults if 
not taken to excess. Tannic acid is the same substance that 
is extracted from tanbark and used in the manufacture of 
leather. When taken into the stomach it injures the lining of 
the stomach and hinders digestion. It also prevents the wear- 



180 



FOOD AND COOKERY 



ing out of body tissue. There is much less tannic acid in black 
tea than in green tea. 



COFFEE. 



History. 



Coffee is supposed to get its name from Kaffa, a province 
of Abyssinia where the tree probably originated. There is no 
coffee grown in the United States, but we use more of it than 
any other country. 






COFFEE PLANT, 
a. Blossom, b. Berry, c. Pulp. d. Bean. 






BEVERAGES 181 

Manufacture. 

The coffee tree grows in all tropical countries. It is an 
evergreen tree with fruit that resembles our cherry except that 
each berry usually contains two seeds with the flat sides towards 
each other. 

The berries are picked from the trees and taken to the 
factories where the pulp is cleaned from the seeds. The seeds 
are then dried in the sun for several weeks after which the two 
closely fitting husks or skins surrounding the seeds are removed. 
The seeds are then sorted according to size and packed into bags 
ready for shipment. All of the work of cleaning and sorting 
is now done by machinery though much of it used to be done 
by hand. The raw coffee bean is of an olive green color and is 
comparatively tasteless. It must be roasted to a rich brown 
color to bring out the appetizing flavor and fragrance that we 
are accustomed to. 

Mocha and Java are the two best known brands of coffee. 
Very little of the so-called Mocha coffee ever grew in Arabia, 
and but little of the Java coffee ever saw the island of Java, the 
names being merely given to certain kinds of coffee beans. 

Composition. 

Coffee contains caffeine, a substance similar to the theine 
in tea, tannic acid and an aromatic oil besides several other less 
important ingredients. The effect of coffee on the body is very 
much like that of tea. Its stimulating power and action on the 
tissues of the body being beneficial to a grown person if not 
taken to excess, but decidedly harmful to a growing child. 

Buying Coffee. 

After coffee is roasted, it loses its flavor rapidly, especially 
if it has been ground. For this reason for family use it should 



182 



FOOD AND COOKERY 



be purchased in small quantities and kept tightly covered. If it 
can be roasted and ground at home of course it will be less liable 
to lose its flavor. 

For filtered coffee the grains should be pulverized and for 
boiled coffee they should be ground coarse or medium. 



COCOA. 

History. 

Mexico is the home of the cacao tree from which we obtain 
chocolate and cocoa. Cortez found the Aztec Indians using this 
delicious drink when he conquered Mexico. He carried it back 
with him to Spain and from there its use has spread all over 
the world. Several hundred million pounds of cacao beans are 
used every year. 




COCOA PLANT, 
a. Cocoa bean. 



Manufacture. 



Chocolate is made from the seeds of the cacao tree. The 
seeds occur in even rows inside a cucumber-shaped T)od from 
eight to twelve inches in length, each pod containing from 



BEVERAGES 183 

twenty to forty seeds. When the pods are ripe they are cut 
from the trees by means of knives on long poles. The seeds are 
removed from the pods and allowed to ferment to get rid of part 
of the bitter flavor that is characteristic of the unfermented seed. 
They are then roasted and shipped to the various chocolate fac- 
tories. Here the shells are removed and the inner part of the 
bean broken up into cocoa "nibs." 

In the manufacture of bitter chocolate, the cocoa nibs are 
run through hot rollers and ground to a soft paste which is then 
run into molds and allowed to harden. If sweet or flavored 
chocolate is to be made the sugar and flavoring are added before 
the paste is poured into the molds. 

The fat in the chocolate is objectionable to some people, so 
a large amount of this fat is removed by means of pressure and 
the dry substance left is then ground to a powder and sold as 
cocoa. The fat is sold as cocoa butter to be used for ointments, 
salves, etc. 

Composition. 

Cocoa contains a stimulant called theobromine, similar to 
the theine and caffeine in tea and coffee, though its stimulating 
effect is believed to be less than that of tea or coffee. Cocoa also 
contains fat and starch in quite large quantities, so that cocoa, 
unlike tea and coffee, is a real food. Cocoa nibs contain about 
fifty per cent fat and from eight to twelve per cent starch. 

Hints in Making Tea, Coffee and Cocoa. 

1. One heaping T. coffee, one level t. tea or one rounding 
t. cocoa to one C. liquid is the proportion usually allowed to each 
person. 

2. Tea should never be boiled. If it is boiled it will contain 
enough tannic acid to make it unfit to be taken into the stomach. 



184 FOOD AND COOKERY 

3. Cocoa should always be boiled to cook the starch. 

4. Sometimes a small amount of cornstarch is mixed with 
the powdered cocoa before cooking to make it seem richer and 
creamier; one-half t. cornstarch to each rounding t. cocoa. 

5. A few drops of vanilla added to the cocoa just before it 
is served improves the flavor for some. 

6. A spk. of salt added to coffee and to cocoa will help 
bring out the flavor. 

7. When milk, instead of cream, is used with coffee it will 
seem richer if it is heated before being added to the coffee. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES. 
Hot Tea. 

3 rounding t. tea 6 C. boiling water 

1. Put freshly drawn water on to boil. 

2. As soon as it is boiling scald an earthen or granite 
teapot, put in the tea and pour the boiling water over it. 

3. Let stand five minutes then pour tea into cups or into 
another teapot. If the water is allowed to stand longer on the 
tea leaves more tannic acid will be drawn out. 

Note. — If_ the tea is too strong weaken with boiling water. Tea 
may be served plain or with cream and sugar or with thin slices of 
lemon and sugar. At afternoon teas, whole cloves or accasia buds are 
sometimes served in tea. 



Iced Tea. 



3 rounding t. tea 5 C. boiling water 

cracked ice 



1. Scald teapot and make tea according to direction for 
hot tea. 



BEVERAGES 185 

2. When tea has steeped five minutes pour into a pitcher 
.and let cool. 

3. Before serving, add cracked ice and serve with thinly 
sliced lemon and sugar. 

Boiled Coffee. 

6 heaping T. coffee 2 egg shells or 1 egg 
1 C. cold water 5 C. boiling water 

1. Scald coffee pot. 

2. Mix one-half C. cold water, crushed egg shells and coffee 
together and put into coffee pot. 

3. Pour on boiling water and let boil three minutes. 

4. Add remainder of cold water and let stand five minutes 
to settle. 

Cold Water Coffee. 

6 heaping T. coffee 6 C. cold water 

1. Scald coffee pot. 

2. Put coffee in muslin bag and put into coffee pot with 
cold water. 

3. Bring slowly to boil and let boil three minutes. 

4. Remove from fire and let stand one minute. Put back on 
stove and let boil three minutes more. Remove bag and let cof- 
fee pot stand where coffee will keep hot but not boil until ready 
to serve. 

Filtered Coffee. 

6 heaping T. pulverized coffee 6 C. boiling water 

1. Put strainer in coffee pot and put coffee into strainer. 

2. Place coffee pot on stove and pour the boiling water 



186 FOOD AND COOKERY 

through the coffee \ C. at a time. After pouring on i C. cover 
the coffee pot and allow the water to drip through slowly, then 
add another half cup and repeat until all the water has been 
added. 

3. If stronger coffee is desired or if the coffee has not been 
finely ground, pour the coffee out of the coffee pot and re-filter it. 
Iced Coffee. 

Make coffee by any of the above methods, then pour into 
a pitcher and allow to cool. Add cracked ice and serve in glasses 
with cream and sugar. 

COCOA. 

4 T. cocoa 1 C. water 

4 T. sugar 4 C. scalded milk 

\ t. salt 

1. Scald milk in double boiler. 

2. Mix cocoa, sugar and salt together. 

3. Add water and let boil two minutes to cook the starch 
thoroughly. 

4. Add milk and let it get hot but not boil. (Milk that 
has boiled is not as easily digested as milk that has not been 
boiled.) 

5. Beat with Dover egg beater until frothy to prevent a 
scum forming on top, then serve at once. 

Note. — If cocoa must stand after it is made, keep it hot in the 
double boiler and beat again before serving. 

Chocolate. 

2 oz. chocolate J C. sugar 

1 C. water 4 C. milk 

i t. salt 






BEVERAGES 187 

Cut chocolate in fine pieces and mix with sugar, salt and 
water, then follow directions for making cocoa. 

Note. — Chocolate or cocoa may he served with a spoonful of 
whipped cream on top or a marshmallow may be dropped on top of 
the hot beverage instead of the cream. 



188 FOOD AND COOKERY 

NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 

1. Why not use all milk in making cocoa? 

2. What objections are there to giving children hot milk 
flavored with a little tea or coffee? 

3. Why are eggs or egg shells sometimes added to coffee? 

4. Will shells from cooked eggs clear coffee as well as 
shells from nncooked eggs? Why? 






. 



BEVERAGES 189 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

Good tea costs eighty to ninety cents a pound, while good 
coffee can be bought for thirty-five cents. Which is more expen- 
sive, a cup of tea or a cup of coffee! 



190 FOOD AND COOKERY 

READING NOTES. 



BEVERAGES 
HOME WORK. 



191 



Date. 



N ame of Dish. 



Results. 



Remarks 




192 FOOD AND COOKERY 

EXERCISE XIII. 




FLOUR MIXTURES. 

Structure and Composition. 

The wheat grain is made up of the bran, germ and heart. 
The three outside layers or bran coats contain cellulose, mineral 
matter, some protein and some coloring .matter. The heart 
contains starch, gluten and a small amount of cellulose and 
mineral matter. The germ is rich in fat and protein, but it is 
usually removed in the manufacture of the flour because the 
fat would soon become rancid and render the flour unfit for use. 

Kinds of Flour. 

Wheat is made into Graham flour, whole wheat flour and 
white flour (sometimes called patent flour). Graham flour is 
made from the whole grain ; whole wheat flour is made after the 
first two coats of bran have been removed; white flour has all 
of the bran and the germ removed by the process of grinding 
and sifting that it goes through. 

As the bran contained in the Graham flour and whole wheat 
flour is mostly cellulose which cannot be digested by the human 
digestive system, these flours do not contain as much nourish- 

13 



FLOUR MIXTURES 193 

ujent as is found in white flour. They do contain more mineral 
matter, however, and the cellulose is useful for persons who take 
little exercise because it increases the action of the intestines. 

Wheat Grain White Fl. Graham Fl. Whole Wheat Fl. 



Water 


10.05 


12.80 


11.30 


11.40 


Protein 


11.09 


10.80 


13.30 


13.80 


Fat 


2.10 


1.10 


2.20 


1.90 


Starch 


71.90 


74.6 


69.50 


71.00 


Fiber 


1.80 


.20 . 


1.80 


.90 



Experiment. Put two tablespoonfuls of flour in a piece of 
cheesecloth and tie in the form of a bag, then squeeze the bag 
in a bowl of cool water until the starch is washed out of the 
flour. Untie the cheesecloth and examine the tough, rubber-like 
substance left in the bag. It is gluten, the form of protein found 
in wheat. Put this ball of gluten on a plate in the oven. As the 
water turns to steam and expands the gluten stretches like rub- 
ber. If baked long enough the thin wall of gluten becomes hard 
and holds its shape. This is what happens when our flour mix- 
tures are put into the oven to bake. 

Try the same experiment with cornmeal. There is no gluten 
in corn. 

Wheat Flour. 

Patent wheat flour is usually used for all flour mixtures 
except in bread making, where we sometimes use flour made 
from rye or other grains. 

There are two kinds of wheat, winter wheat and spring 
wheat. Winter wheat is planted in the fall and harvested in 
the early summer. This is a soft wheat and the flour contains 
a large per cent of starch. It is used for cakes, pastry, etc. 



194 FOOD AND COOKERY 

Spring wheat is planted in the spring and harvested in the fall. 
The grains are hard and the flour contains less starch and more 
gluten (the protein in wheat) than does the winter wheat. The 
flour made from spring wheat is called bread flour. 

Frequently the two kinds of wheat are blended so as to 
produce a flour that will be suitable for either bread or pastry. 

Macaroni flour is wheat flour especially rich in gluten. 

Batters. 

A batter is a mixture of flour and liquid thin enough to be 
beaten with a spoon, the word batter meaning to beat. If the 
mixture is so stiff that it can be handled upon a molding board, 
it is called a dough. 

Kinds of batters. 

Batters are divided according to their consistency or thick- 
ness into pour batters, stiff drop batters' and soft drop batters. 
If a batter is so thin that it will pour in a steady stream from 
the spoon it is called a pour batter; if it is thick enough to drop 
in a large lump, it is a stiff drop batter and if it is so soft that 
it will start to pour from the spoon and then drop in a soft lump, 
it is called a soft drop batter. 

Different kinds of flour vary so much that it is impossible 
to tell the exact amount of liquid that will be needed in any 
given mixture. It will be necessary to know the correct con- 
sistency or thickness of the batter and add liquid to the mixture 
until it is of the proper consistency. In general the proportion 
of liquid to flour is: 

Pour batter 1 C. liquid to 1 C. flour. 
Soft drop batter J C. liquid to 1 C. flour. 
Stiff drop batter -J C. liquid to 1 C. flour. 






■I 



FLOUR MIXTURES 195 

Other Ingredients Contained in Flour Mixtures. 

A mixture consisting only of flour and milk or water would 
be tough, heavy and tasteless when baked. It is therefore neces- 
sary to add other ingredients to have a food that is palatable 
and digestible. 

Salt is added to take away the "flat" taste; fat (commonly 
called shortening) in the form of butter, lard, dripping, suet, etc., 
is used to make the cooked food more tender. Baking powder, 
or soda with sour milk or molasses- or air beaten into eggs will 
make the food lighter and more porous, therefore more digest- 
ible. 

These additions make a change in the batter as well as in 
the taste and texture of the food after it is cooked. 

Shortening will tend to make the batter thinner and if a 
large amount of shortening is used, less liquid will be needed. 

Eggs make a batter thinner but the cooked food will be 
stiffer and tougher because the heat of the oven hardens and 
toughens the albumin in the egg. Shortening added to the mix- 
ture will overcome this toughness. A batter that contains many 
eggs and little fat should be baked at a very low temperature. 
In changing a recipe, if fewer eggs are used, the amount of flour 
should be increased or the amount of liquid decreased. It would 
be better to decrease the amount of liquid as recipes are usually 
written with the baking powder, flavoring, etc., calculated to the 
amount of flour, therefore any change in the amount of flour 
would make a change in the other ingredients necessary. 

Methods of Mixing. 

There are three methods of putting flour mixtures together, 
called the batter method, the dough method and the cake method. 



196 FOOD AND COOKERY 

The amount of shortening used and the texture desired in the 
finished product decides which process shall be used. 

Batter Method of Mixing. 

1. Mix and sift the dry materials. (If sifted two or three 
times, more air will be mixed with the dry materials and the 
food will be lighter.) If granulated sugar is used it can be 
stirred into the other dry materials after sifting. 

2. Add beaten egg to half the milk and stir into the dry 
materials. 

3. Add enough more milk to make the batter the desired 
consistency. 

4. Add the melted butter, beat well and cook immediately. 
If allowed to stand it will not be so light. 

Flour should always be sifted before it is measured. It 
should then be put lightly into the cup with a spoon and leveled 
off with a knife. Do not shake or rap the cup to level it or the 
flour will pack and you will have more than a cupful. In meas- 
uring part of a cupful, fill the measuring cup a little above the 
right mark in the cup and then lift out the flour to the rim with 
a spoon. If only £ C. is needed it will be quicker and more 
accurate to measure it by tablespoonfuls. 

Baking. 

Experience is the only safe guide to follow in telling when 
an oven is the right temperature. It will be some help until one 
has become experienced to tell the heat of the oven by testing 
it with the bare hand. If you can hold the hand in the oven until 
you can count thirty you have a hot oven. If the hand must be 
taken out before you have counted thirty it is too hot, if you can 
hold it longer it is not hot enough. For moderate oven you 






FLOUR MIXTURES 197 

should be able to hold the hand there until you can count forty 
and for a slow oven you should be able to count forty-five. 

If the oven is too hot even with the fire turned low, open 
the oven door slightly or set a pan of cold water into the oven. 

In baking batter mixtures the length of time for cooking 
can be divided into fourths. At the end of the first quarter the 
mixture should begin to rise; at the end of the second quarter 
it should continue to rise, but not brown; the end of the third 
quarter should find it well risen and beginning to brown, and at 
the end of the fourth quarter if the muffin or cake is done, it 
will have pulled away from the side of the pan; and if 
pressed lightly on top with the finger it will feel firm and will 
spring back into place. A clean straw, knitting needle or wooden 
toothpick put into the center of the muffin will come out clean 
if the muffin is done. 

If the oven is too hot the muffin or cake will bake on top 
before it has risen enough, then in its effort to rise it will burst 
through the crust that has formed and will be rough on top. 

If there are large holes in the muffins after they are baked 
it is because the oven was too hot, the mixture was too 'thin or 
there was too much baking powder in it. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES. 
Griddle Cakes. 

1 C. flour 1 C. milk 
i t. salt 1 egg 

2 t. baking powder 1 T. melted butter 

1. Mix and sift dry materials. 

2. Add the beaten egg to half the milk and stir into the 
dry materials. 






198 FOOD AND COOKERY 



3. Add enough more milk to make a pour batter. Stir in 
the melted butter and beat well. 

4. Heat a griddle hissing hot, grease with a piece of fat, 
salt pork, and pour the batter onto the griddle by spoonfuls. 
Bake until the under side is brown and bubbles begin to form 
on top, then turn and brown the other side. Be sure the cake is 
well browned on the under side before it is turned. Do not turn 
it a second time or it will not be as light. 

Note. — If large hubbies rise at once to the top of the cakes, the 
griddle is too hot, if the top stiffens before the under side is brown 
the griddle is not hot enough. 

Serve the griddle cakes as soon as baked. They may be 
served with butter, with butter and syrup or with butter and 
sugar. They are sometimes baked in large cakes and spread 
with butter and then with granulated sugar or crushed maple 
sugar. As soon as the second one is baked it is placed on the 
first and spread with butter and sugar. This is continued until 
there is a pile of eight or ten. They are then cut in sections as 
you would a layer cake. This makes a nice Sunday night sup- 
per in the winter. 

Plain Muffins. 

2 C. flour 4 T. sugar 

i t. salt 1C. (?) milk 

3 t. baking powder 1 egg 

2 T. melted butter. 

1. Mix and sift dry materials three times. 

2. Add half of the milk to the beaten egg and stir into the 
dry materials. 

3. Beat well and if too thick, add enough more milk to 
make a soft drop batter. 



FLOUR MIXTURES 199 

4. Add melted butter. 

5. Fill well greased muffin pans about two-thirds full and 
bake about twenty minutes in a moderate oven. 



Graham Muffins. 

1 C. Graham flour 4 T. sugar 

1C. white flour 1 C. (?) milk 

4 t. baking powder 1 egg 

i t. salt 1 T. melted butter 



Mix by the batter method of mixing. 



Rice Muffins. 

2 C. flour \ C. cooked rice 

4 t. baking powder 1 C. (?) milk 

i t. salt 1 egg 

2 T. sugar 2 T. melted butter 

1. Mix and sift dry materials. 

2. Add well beaten egg to one-half the milk and stir into 
the dry materials. 

3. Add the rice and enough more milk to make a soft drop 
batter. 

4. Add the melted butter and bake in well greased muffin 
pans in moderate oven from twenty to twenty-five minutes. 



200 



FOOD AND COOKERY 




Corn Cake. 



1 C. cornmeal 
li C. flour 
5 t. baking powder 
1 1. salt 



4 T. sugar 
1C. (!) milk 
1 egg 

1 T. melted butter 



1. Mix by the batter method of mixing. 

2. Bake in a well greased shallow pan, in a hot oven for 
twenty minutes. 

Note. — If the corn cake is baked in a deep bread pan, use a moderate 
oven and bake from thirty-five to forty minutes. 






FLOUR MIXTURES 201 

NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 

1. Why are griddle cakes harder to digest than bread? 

2. Why is a piece of fat pork better than butter to grease 
griddle ? 

3. If you left the egg out of the recipe for griddle cakes, 
what other change would you make in the recipe! Why? 



202 FOOD AND COOKERY 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

Draw map of the United States and locate chief wheat- 
growing districts. Chief flour-milling cities. 

How much would you save by buying flour by the barrel 
instead of by the 24-pound sack! 



FLOUR MIXTURES 203 

READING NOTES. 

References. 

The Story of a Kernel of Wheat. 
Farmers ' Bulletin No. 389. 



204 



FOOD AND COOKERY 
HOME WORK. 



Date. 



Name of Dish. 



Result. 



Remarks. 




j 



LEAVENING AGENTS 
EXERCISE XIV. 



205 




LEAVENING AGENTS. 

To leaven is to cause to rise or to make light. Unless 
something is added to a flour mixture to make it light and 
porous the digestive juices will not be able to penetrate it and 
it will be hard to digest. It will also be less palatable. 

Methods of Making Batters Light. 

There are a number of materials that are used for this pur- 
pose. Probably the first used was air which was beaten into the 
mixture itself or into eggs before they were added to the batter. 
When the batter was baked the bubbles of air expanded, the 
gluten of the flour and the albumen of the eggs kept the air 
from escaping from the mixture. As it expanded it pushed the 
batter up with it; then when the heat was sufficient to cook the 
dough, the walls of the little cells formed by the air bubbles 
became firm enough to hold themselves up and the result was a 
light, porous loaf. 

Probably the use of yeast came next. This is a rather slow 

process however, for it is necessary to wait for the yeast plant 

to grow and form enough bubbles of gas to make the bread rise. 

Scientists have discovered that these bubbles of gas can be 

produced instantly by putting together certain harmless chemi- 



^06 FOOD AND COOKERY 

cals and that the gas given off by these chemicals has the same 
effect on the bread (as far as making it light is concerned), as 
does that produced by the yeast plant. 

One of these chemicals is baking soda, which will give off 
a gas called carbon dioxide gas when it is mixed with water 
and an acid. Soda combined with water only, will give off 
enough gas to raise the dough, but it will give a bitter taste and 
yellow color to the food. When the soda is combined with an 
acid in just the right proportion, the food will taste neither 
bitter nor sour. The acid has destroyed the bitter taste of the 
soda and the soda has destroyed the sour taste of the acid. 
If cream of tartar is the acid used there will be a substance 
called Eochelle salts formed. It will be in such small quantity 
that it will not be noticed in the food. 

The acids usually used with soda in cooking are sour milk, 
molasses and cream of tartar or tartaric acid. Some very old 
cook books use a few spoonfuls of vinegar with the soda. 

Baking Powder. 

Soda and cream of tartar used to be kept separate and com- 
bined as needed by the house-wife. Because of the difficulty of 
measuring the correct proportion of each ingredient we more 
often now use what we call baking powder. Baking powder is 
made of soda and cream of tartar carefully weighed and thor- 
oughly mixed and sifted, with enough corn starch mixed with 
them to keep the powder from absorbing moisture and losing 
strength. 

Sometimes acid phosphate, alum and other cheap acids are 
used in the manufacture of baking powders. The acid phos- 
phate makes a very good baking powder but alum baking 
powder and all cheap powders should be avoided. They are not 
cheap in the long run. 



LEAVENING AGENTS 207 

Experiments. 

Ex. 1. Put into a test tube 1/6 t. baking soda and pour 
J C. hot water on it. The foaming is caused by the gas that is 
being given off. 

Ex. 2. Put into a test tube 1/6 t. soda and add 2 T. cold 
water. Very little gas is given off. 

Ex. 3. Put a little more than i t. cream of tartar into 
another tube with 2 T. cold water. Stir until dissolved. Very 
little gas is given off. 

Ex.4. Mix the contents of the" last two tubes together. The 
foaming shows that gas is being given off. 

Ex. 5. Heat the tube gently. More gas is given off. 

Ex. 6. Add \ t. soda to \ glass sour milk. Add \ t. soda 
to \ glass of New Orleans molasses. Notice the bubbles that form 
in both glasses, showing that gas is being given off. 
General Proportions of Cream of Tartar, Molasses, and Sour 

Milk to be used with Soda: 

1 t. soda to 2| t. cream of tartar. 
| t. soda to 2 C. thick sour milk. 
1 t. soda to 1 C. New Orleans molasses. 

If your recipe calls for sweet milk and baking powder and 
you wish to use sour milk and soda, allow \ t. soda to each cup 
of sour milk. Each \ t. soda will make 1 C. flour light. For 
each additional cup of flour add 2 t. baking powder. 

From H t. to 2 t. baking powder is the amount usually 
allowed for each cup of flour. The more eggs used, the less 
baking powder will be needed, as the eggs hold the air which 
is beaten into the mixture. 

Batters made light by any of the quick leavening agents 
should be baked as soon as they are mixed to prevent the escape 
of the gas. 



208 FOOD AND COOKERY 

LABORATORY EXERCISES. 

Baking Powder. 

\ lb. bicarbonate of soda \\ lb. cream of tartar 
4 oz. cornstarch 

1. Mix soda and cornstarch together and sift three or four 
times in a fine flonr sieve. 

2. Add the cream of tartar and sift seven or eight times. 
Put into Mason jars and screw the covers down tightly. (Always 
keep the baking powder can tightly covered to prevent the bak- 
ing powder losing strength.) 

Ginger Bread. 

2J C. flour 1 C. molasses 

1 t. soda i C. boiling water 

li t. ginger 1 egg 

i t. salt 4 T. melted butter 

1. Mix and sift dry ingredients. 

2. Add boiling water to the molasses and stir into the dry 
ingredients. 

3. Add well beaten egg and melted butter. Beat well. 

4. Pour into a buttered shallow pan and bake about 25 
min. in a moderate oven. If the bottom of the pan is lined with 
a sheet of buttered paper, the ginger bread will be less apt to 
burn on the bottom. 

Note. — This recipe may be made without the egg. 

14 



LEAVENING AGENTS 209 

Ginger Drops. 

3 C. flour i t. salt 

1 t. cinnamon J C. butter 

1 t. cloves i C. sugar 

1 t. ginger 1 C. molasses 

1 t. soda 1 C. boiling water 

2 well beaten eggs 

1. Mix and sift dry ingredients. 

2. Mix sugar, butter, molasses and hot water together and 
add to the dry materials. 

3. Add the well beaten eggs last and bake in well greased 
gem pans or in shallow cake pan in a moderate oven. 

Note. — This makes a nice pudding if served with a warm vanilla 
or lemon sauce. 

Vanilla Sauce. 

1 C. boiling water 2 T. flour 
i C. sugar 2 T. butter 

1 t. vanilla 

1. Put water on to boil. 

2. Mix sugar and flour together and stir into the boiling 
water. 

3. Boil five minutes, stirring constantly. 

4. Kemove from the fire and add butter and vanilla. 
Note. — A sour sauce may be made by adding 1 T. vinegar or lemon 

juice. 

Rolled Ginger Bread. 

6 C. flour 1 C. molasses 

1 t. soda 1 C. cream, or 1 CL milk and 6 

1 t. ginger T. ^melted butter 

1 t. salt 



210 FOOD AND COOKERY 

1. Mix and sift dry ingredients. 

2. Add the molasses and enough cream to make a soft 
dough. 

3. Turn onto a well floured board and roll i inch thick. 
Cut into pieces 2\ inches square and bake on a well greased 
baking sheet in hot oven. 



LEAVENING AGENTS 211 

NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 



212 FOOD AND COOKERY 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

1. Figure the cost of a pound of home-made cream of tartar 
baking powder. A pound of commercial baking powder. 

2. How much soda and how much baking powder would you 
need for the recipe for Plain Muffins, if you used sour milk 
instead of sweet milk? 



LEAVENING AGENTS 213 

READING NOTES. 

Suggested Topics: 

Manufacture of cream of tartar. 
Manufacture of New Orleans molasses. 



214 



FOOD AND COOKERY 
HOME WORK. 



Date. 



Name of Dish. 



Result. 



Remarks. 




QUICK DOUGHS 
EXERCISE XV. 



215 




QUICK DOUGHS. 

A dough is a flour mixture stiff enough to be handled on 
a board. Quick doughs are those that are made light by means 
of baking powder, soda and sour milk or soda and cream of 
tartar. 

To give the light, flaky appearance that we associate with 
well made biscuits and other quick doughs, it is necessary to 
have all of the materials as cold as possible. Where it is prac- 
ticable it will be well to measure the flour and put it into the 
ice box for an hour before mixing. Of course the lard and 
milk will be kept in the ice box or in some other cool place. 

Handle quick doughs as little as possible. 

Dough Method of Mixing. 

1. Mix and sift dry materials three times. 

2. Cut the shortening into the dry materials with two 
knives. (If the tips of the fingers are used the warmth of the 
hand will soften the shortening and the dough will not be as 
light.) 

3. Add enough milk or water to make a soft dough. Mix 
with a knife and stir as little as possible. When one part of 
the flour is moistened push it to one side and moisten another 



216 FOOD AND COOKERY 

portion, then mix all lightly together. Do not beat the mixture . 

4. Tnrn onto a floured board. Toss the dough with a 
knife until all sides are coated with flour then pat or roll to 
the desired thickness. 

5. Cut with floured biscuit cutter. 

6. Bake in hot oven. 

Biscuits and other quick doughs are done if they are well 
risen, if they are brown on top and if the sides seem firm when 
pressed lightly with the finger. 

As a rule a hot oven is required for all quick doughs. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES. 
Baking Powder Biscuits. 

2 C. flour i t. salt 

3 t. baking powder 2 T. shortening 

f G. (?) milk 

1. Mix and sift dry ingredients three times. 

2. Cut the shortening into the dry materials with two 
knives. The mixture should have something the appearance of 
cornmeal when the shortening is well worked into the flour. 

3. Add enough milk to make as soft a dough as can be 
handled on the board. 

4. Turn dough on floured board and roll or pat till f of 
an inch thick. 

5. Cut with floured biscuit cutter and place on floured 
baking sheet and bake in a hot oven twelve to fifteen minutes. 
Cut the dough as economically as possible so as to have few 
pieces left to work over. Biscuit dough should be handled as 
little as possible. 



QUICK DOUGHS 217 

Drop Biscuits or Emergency Biscuits. 

2 C. flour J t. salt 

3 t. baking powder 2 T. shortening 

| C. (?) milk 

1. Mix the same as baking powder biscuits. 

2. Add milk enough to make a stiff drop batter and drop 
by tablespoonfuls one inch apart, on a well greased baking 
sheet. 

3. Bake twelve to fifteen minutes in hot oven. 

Egg Tea Rolls. 

2 C. flour i t. salt 

4 t. baking powder 3 T. fat 

1 egg 

1. Mix dry ingredients and sift three times. 

2. Cut in shortening with two knives. 

3. Add beaten egg to one-half the milk and add gradually 
to the dry ingredients. 

4. Add enough more milk to make a soft dough. 

5. Turn onto a floured board. Roll lightly to 4- inch thick- 
ness. 

6. Cut into oblong pieces and with a floured knife crease 
through the center of each piece lengthwise. 

7. Brush the top of each roll with the white of egg and 
sprinkle with granulated sugar. 

8. Place on greased baking sheet and bake in hot oven 
twelve to fifteen minutes. 



218 FOOD AND COOKERY 

Cinnamon Rolls. 

2 C. flour 2 T. fat 

4 t. baking powder § C. (?) milk 
\ t. salt i C. sugar 

4 t. cinnamon 

1. Mix as for baking powder biscuit. 

2. Roll i inch thick, brush with melted butter and spread 
with sugar and cinnamon. 

3. Roll like jelly roll and cut into, pieces 1 inch thick. 

4. Stand pieces on end on a well greased tin and bake 
in hot oven fifteen minutes. 

Note. — One-half cup finely chopped fruit (raisins, currants or 
citron) may be spread over the dough before it is rolled up. 

Cheese Biscuit. 

2 C. flour 3 T. butter 

4 t. baking powder f C. (?) milk 
| t. salt grated cheese 

1. Mix like baking powder biscuits. 

2. Eoll one-fourth inch thick. 

3. Spread one-half of the dough with grated cheese, 
sprinkle with salt and pepper and fold the other half of the 
dough over the cheese. 

4. Boll lightly with the rolling pin to make the two layers 
stick together, then cut with small biscuit cutter and bake on 
floured pan twelve to fifteen minutes in hot oven. 

5. Serve hot with salads. 






QUICK DOUGHS 219 

NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 



220 FOOD AND COOKERY 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

1. Why should one have a hotter oven for biscuits than 
for muffins? 

2. How do the recipes for cheese biscuits, cinnamon rolls, 
egg tea rolls and emergency biscuits differ from baking powder 
biscuits ? 

3. If you knew the recipe for baking powder biscuit could 
you make any of these other quick doughs from it ? 

4. Can you suggest any other variation of the baking 
powder, biscuit recipe? 



QUICK DOUGHS 
READING NOTES. 



221 



222 



FOOD AND COOKERY 
HOME WOEK. 






Date. 



Name of Dish. 



Results. 



Remarks. 




BREAD MAKING 223 

EXERCISE XVI. 




BREAD MAKING. 

Bread in some form is more widely used than any other 
food except milk. In some sections of the world, bread con- 
stitutes almost the sole article of diet and if made from flour 
rich in gluten forms a very well balanced meal. 

A description of the various breads of different countries 
would make an interesting study: the tortilla, a thin, unleavened 
cake of coarsely ground corn, baked on a heated iron plate by 
the Mexican Indian; the rice flour biscuit of Japan; the fine- 
flavored loaf made from hand-ground wheat in Palestine; the 
hoe cake of the southern Negro; the schwartz-brod of the Ger- 
man peasant, etc. The average person, however, in speaking 
of bread means the golden brown, yeast-leavened loaf of our 
modern bakeries. 

Yeast. 

The use of yeast as a leavening agent is thousands of years 



224 



FOOD AND COOKERY 



old. A microscopic examination of some bread made over 4400 
years ago in Egypt showed the presence of dead yeast cells. 




Single Yeast Cells. 



Structure of Yeast. 



Budding Yeast Cells. 



Yeast Spores. 



Yeasts are tiny plants so small that when separated, they 
cannot be seen except by the aid of a microscope. Each one 
of these plants consists of a single ronnd or oval cell with a 
transparent wall. This cell is filled with liquid and granular 
cell substance called protoplasm. 

Under proper conditions a bud will grow to the size of the 
original cell then separate and in turn send out buds. Again 
the cells may remain attached to each other until a chain of four 
or five cells is formed. 

The conditions necessary to the growth of the yeast plant 
are air, warmth, water, some form of sugar and some food from 
which it can obtain nitrogen. Starch will be changed into 
sugar for the use of the yeast plant if there is no usable form 
of sugar present. 

If the yeast plant has to go for a long time without food 
and water, it will sometimes divide into spores (a kind of seed). 
The outside wall will then break down and these spores will 
float around in the air until they are given the right conditions 
when they will commence to grow the same as the original yeast 
cell. These spores can stand more unfavorable conditions with- 
out being harmed than the yeast cell. 



15 



BREAD MAKING 225 

Method by Which Yeast Raises Dough. 

As the yeast plant grows it changes the sugar into alcohol 
and into a gas called carbon dioxide gas. When these bubbles 
of gas are given off inside the bread dough, they are caught 
and held by the rubber-like gluten in the flour and in their 
efforts to escape push the dough up and cause the bread to rise 
and become light and porous. This process of changing sugar 
into alcohol and carbon dioxide gas is called fermentation. 

Effect of Heat on the Yeast Plant. 

If any plant is to grow well it must receive the right amount 
of heat as well as the proper soil. Bearing in mind the fact that 
the faster the yeast plant grows the more bubbles of gas it will 
give off, the results of the following experiments will show at 
what temperature the yeast plant thrives best. 

Experiments. 

Put 1 t. molasses into each of three glasses. Soften a cake 
of compressed yeast with 2 T. of water. Put one-third of the 
softened yeast into each glass. 

Ex. 1. Pour one-half cup of cold water into one glass of 
yeast and molasses and set it into the ice box or out of the 
window if the weather is cold. 

Ex. 2. Pour one-half cup of hike warm water into another 
of the glasses of yeast and molasses and set the glass into a pan 
of warm water. 

Ex. 3. Pour the yeast and molasses in the last glass into 
one-half cup of boiling water and when cool enough so it will 
not break the glass pour it back into the glass and set it into a 
pan of luke warm water. 

In half an hour examine the three tumblers. In which is 
the yeast working best? 



226 FOOD AND COOKERY 

Place the glass from the ice box into a pan of warm water. 
Does any change take place! 

What effect does cold have on yeast? 

What is the best temperature for your bread if you want 
it to rise! 

Yeast grows bfcst at a temperatture of 70° to 80° Fahren- 
heit. At 160° F. or over, the yeast plant will die. At a very 
low temperature, the yeast plant is chilled and its action is made 
slower, but if the temperature is then raised to 70°, the yeast 
plant will revive and commence to work. 

Kinds of Yeast. 

Compressed yeast, dry yeast, liquid yeast and wild yeast 
are all used in raising bread. 

Compressed yeast is obtained from the distilleries. It is 
washed many times to remove the impurities, is then mixed 
with a small amount of starch and pressed into cakes. These 
are wrapped in tinfoil to exclude the air and kept in a cool 
place until used. There are many millions of yeast plants in 
each two-cent cake of yeast. 

Dry yeast is made by mixing the distillers yeast with corn- 
meal. It is then pressed into cakes and dried. Dry yeast will 
keep much longer than compressed yeast, but is a little slower 
to act when making bread. 

Liquid yeast is made by mixing a cake of yeast with boiled 
potatoes, salt and the water in which hops have been steeped. 
This is allowed to stand until the yeast grows and fills the whole 
mixture with bubbles of gas. A cupful of this yeast is used to 
lighten the bread dough. The last cupful of each mixture of 
liquid yeast can be used to start a new mixture of potatoes, 
hops and water. So many bacteria get into this yeast from 



BREAD MAKING 227 

the air that after a time it will be necessary to start the liquid 
yeast afresh with a cake of compressed or dried yeast. The 
bacteria would give the bread a bitter taste. 

All yeast is originally obtained from wild yeast floating in 
the air. If these wild yeasts drop into a sweet, moist food they 
will commence to grow and cause the food to ferment. "Salt 
rising" bread is raised by wild yeast. The salt is added to 
keep the bacteria that drop into the sponge with the yeast from 
giving the bread a bad taste. 

Liquids Used in Yeast Batters. 

Milk, water, milk and water, boiled potatoes and water are 
the liquids used in bread making. 

If milk is used it must be scalded to kill the milk-souring 
bacteria. The growth of these bacteria would hinder the growth 
of the yeast. It would also sour the bread. 

Kinds of Flour. 

Wheat will produce the best loaf of bread for the amount 
of money expended and is more generally used for bread making 
than any of the other grains. 

Bread made from the coarser flours such as graham, whole 
wheat, oat meal, etc., contain a smaller per cent of nourishment 
than the white flour breads because the bran they contain con- 
sists of indigestible cellulose. They are, however, considered 
healthful foods for those who live an indoor life, as the cellu- 
lose stimulates the action of the intestines. 

Points in Bread Making. 

1. Bread dough should be a soft dough. 

2. If bread is to have only two risings, all of the flour 
should be added when the bread is first mixed. 



228 FOOD AND COOKERY 

3. Use as little flour as possible when kneading bread the 
second time. It will look streaked if flour is kneaded into it 
after the first rising. 

4. Before forming dough into loaves, knead it until all 
the gas bubbles are broken down, to make it fine grained, with 
no large holes in it. 

5. If bread is allowed to rise too long, bacteria will change 
the alcohol into acetic acid and the bread will taste sour. Never 
let your bread wait for you. Attend to, it as soon as it is ready. 
If it is impossible to knead it when it has risen enough, stir it 
with a knife until all the gas cells are broken down, then let- 
it rise again. 

6. Bread is kneaded 

(1) To make it of uniform texture. The gas bubbles 

that form first are large and irregular in shape. 
Kneading breaks them up into small bubbles of 
uniform size. It is also kneaded 

(2) To develop the gluten. We find in wheat flour two 

substances (gliaden and glutenin) which when 
mixed with water and well kneaded unite and 
form gluten, the sticky substance in the dough. 

7. Bread is baked to make it palatable, to cook the starch, 
to drive off the alcohol and carbon dioxide gas and to kill the 
yeast plants. Half baked bread will cause indigestion. 

Directions for Kneading. 

1. Slip the fingers under jthe edge of. the dough farthest 



BREAD MAKING 



229 




from you and fold the dough towards you about two-thirds of 
its length. (Fig. 1.) 




2. Then press the dough hard with the palms of the hands, 
(Fig. 2) giving the dough a little rolling motion from you. 



230 



FOOD AND COOKERY 




3. Turn the dough towards the left one-fourth of the way 
round so that the end of the dough that was at the right will 
be farthest from you. (Fig. 3.) 

4. Repeat until the dough is well kneaded, being careful 
to keep the smooth side of the dough next to the board. 




Bread Mixer. 

A bread mixer greatly reduces the labor of bread making 



BREAD MAKING 231 

in the house. The mixing, rising and kneading are all done in 
the mixer. The bread board will only be needed when the bread 
is ready to be formed into loaves. It takes less strength to turn 
the crank of a mixer than to knead dough by hand and the 
bread will be of more uniform texture especially if one is inex- 
perienced in the art of bread baking. 

Method of Mixing Yeast Batters and Doughs. 

1. Scald the liquid. 

2. Soften the yeast cake with 1 T. luke warm liquid. 
(Lukewarm means the same as body temperature. Test with 
the little finger. If the liquid feels neither warm nor cool to the 
finger, it is the proper temperature.) 

3. Add sugar, salt and shortening to the hot liquid. 

4. Cool to body temperature and add the softened yeast. 

5. Add one and one-half times as much flour as you have 
liquid then beat well. 

6. If the bread is to rise three times, cover the dish and 
set in a warm place and let rise until it has doubled in bulk. If 
it is to rise only twice proceed from No. 5 to No. 7. 

7. Beat thoroughly then add as much flour as you can beat 
in with a spoon. 

8. Turn onto a well-floured board, roll dough in flour, then 
knead it with the hands until smooth and of even texture 
throughout. 

9. Put the dough into a greased bowl, brush over with 
water or lard to keep from drying on top and set in a warm place 
to rise. If you wish the bread to rise rapidly surround the 
bowl with water as warm as you can hold the back of your hand 
in. 

10. When the dough has risen to twice the size turn it 



232 FOOD AND COOKERY 

onto the board and knead nntil all the bubbles are broken down. 
Use as little flour as possible for this kneading. 

0L1. Form into loaves and put into greased baking pans. 
Be sure the dough is smooth on top and fits well into the corners 
of the pans. 

12. Brush the top with melted lard or water and set in 
warm place to rise until twice its size. 

13. Bake in moderate oven forty-five to sixty minutes for 
one pound loaves. 

14. Turn the bread frequently during the first fifteen min- 
utes of baking so that it will rise evenly. It should not begin 
to brown until it has been in the oven at least twenty minutes. 

15. When bread is done, remove from pans, brush upper 
crust with water to soften it and set on rack to cool where the 
air can reach all sides. 

16. When cool put away in stone jar or ventilated bread 
can. Do not wrap in cloth or it will mold. 

A Perfect Loaf of Bread. 

A loaf of bread consists of the crust, which is the brown, 
outside portion and the crumb, the white inner part. 

A perfect loaf of bread should be a golden brown color on 
top, sides and bottom. It should be evenly risen in the pan, 
with the crust smooth and even, not cracked nor protruding over 
the sides. If well baked it will feel firm when pressed and will 
spring back quickly when pressure is removed. When cut, the 
crumb of the bread should be creamy in color, should slice 
smoothly without crumbling and the holes should be small and 
uniform. The taste should be sweet and nutty. 

When learning to bake bread it would be a good plan to fill 
out the following score card after each baking. By comparing 






BREAD MAKING 



233 



methods and results, any faults could be corrected and in a 
short time perfect loaves of bread would be produced each time. 



Score Card. 



Date 



Score 1 2 3 

Perfect Trial Trial Trial 



Kind and amount of Flour. 
Kind and amount of Liquid 
Kind and amount of Yeast. . 
Time required for Rising . . . 
Time required for Baking . 



Baking : — 

Is the bread thoroughly baked? 



Is it an even golden brown on all sides? 
Is the loaf good shape ? 



Taste :— 

Is there the slighest sour taste 

Is the flavor good? 



Texture of Crumb : — 
Is the bread light? 



Are the holes small and even ? 

Is the bread firm and not crumbly? 

Is the crumb a creamv white or is it dark ? 



15 



19. 
15. 

20. 
10. 
10. 
10, 






234 FOOD AND COOKERY 

Amount of Yeast Needed. 

If the bread is to rise quickly a large amount of yeast must 
be used and the bread must be kept warm. Less yeast will be 
needed in the summer than in the winter. The following pro- 
portions will help some in judging the amount to be used. 

1/4 yeast cake to 2 C. liquid will take eight hours to rise in 
winter time. 

1/6 yeast cake to 2 C. liquid will take eight hours to rise in 
summer time. 

1 yeast cake to 2 C. liquid will take five hours if kept warm. 

2 yeast cakes to 2 C. liquid will take three hours if kept 
warm. 

2h yeast cakes to 2 C. liquid will take one and one-half hours 
if kept warm. 

This large amount of yeast adds materially to the cost of 
the bread. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES. 
Raised Buckwheat Cakes. 



1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
night. 



2 C. milk 


f C. bread flour 




J t. salt 


1-J C. buckwheat flour 




1 T. molasses 


J of 1 yeast cake 




1 egg 






Scald milk. 






Add salt and molasses. 






Soften yeast in 1 T. luke 


warm water. 




When milk is luke warm 


add softened yeast and flo 


ur. 


Beat well, cover with clean cloth and set to rise 


over 



BREAD MAKING 235 

6. In the morning add the egg well-beaten and cook the 
same as plain griddle cakes. 

Raised Muffins. 

1 t. salt 2 T. butter or lard 
4 T. sugar ^ of 1 yeast cake 

2 G. milk or milk and water 4 C. bread flour 

1. Scald liquid. 

2. Add salt, sugar and shortening. 

3. Soften yeast cake in 1 T. luke warm water. 

4. When liquid is luke warm add softened yeast and flour. 

5. Beat well, cover and set in warm place to rise. 

6. When light add egg well beaten. 

7. Pour into well greased muffin pans and bake in moderate 
oven. 

Bread. 

1 C. boiling water or 1 t. lard 

scalded milk \ yeast cake 

1 t. salt 3 C. flour 

1 T. sugar 
Follow general directions for bread baking. 

Raisin Bread. 

1 C. scalded milk 1 t. lard 

1 t. salt J yeast cake 

3 T. sugar 3 C. flour 

J C. raisins (seeded) 

1. Follow general directions for bread making. 

2. Before forming dough into loaves stir in the raisins 
which have been washed and cut in halves. 



236 FOOD AND COOKERY 

Graham Bread. 

1 C. scalded milk 1 t. sugar 

1 t. salt i yeast cake 

1 t. lard 1J C. bread flour 

2 C. (?) graham flour 

1. Make a sponge of the first six ingredients following the 
general directions for breadmaking. 

2. When the sponge is light, add enough graham flour to 
make the dough stiff enough to knead. 

3. Let rise until light, then form into loaves and let rise 
again. 

4. Bake well in a moderate oven. 
Raised Biscuits. 

Any of the above bread doughs may be made into biscuits 
instead of one loaf. 

To form into biscuits roll the dough quite thin with rolling 
pin then cut with biscuit cutter or cut the dough into equal 
portions with a knife and shape into round balls with the 
fingers. 

A hotter oven is needed for baking biscuits than for bread. 



BREAD MAKING 237 

NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 



238 FOOD AND COOKERY 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

1. Why should you have a slower oven for bread than for 
biscuits 1 

2. Figure the cost of a loaf of home-made bread counting 
your time as worth the same as that of the baker in the factory. 
Compare with the cost of a loaf of baker's bread. 

3. What reason is there for learning to make bread if there 
is little likelihood of your ever having to do it? 






BREAD MAKING 239 

READING NOTES. 

Suggested Topics: 

Factory Made Bread. 
Primitive Bread Making. 
Bread Making in Other Lands. 



240 FOOD AND COOKERY 

HOME WORK. 

Fill out score card every time you make bread at home. 






16 



, 



CAKE MIXTURES AND PUDDINGS 
EXERCISE XVII. 



241 




CAKE MIXTURES AND PUDDINGS. 



CAKES. 

Cake are divided into two classes :- — butter cakes and butter- 
less cakes or sponge cakes. 

Butter Cakes. 

The ingredients used in butter cakes are the same as those 
used for griddle cakes, plain muffins, etc., the difference being 
in the amount of each ingredient used. The fine texture desired 
in butter cakes and the quantity of butter used, make it neces- 
sary to use a different method of mixing from those used for 
griddle cakes, muffins and biscuits. 

Cake Method of Mixing. 

1. Sift flour, baking powder and salt together. 

2. Cream the butter; that is, work the butter with a wooden 
mixing spoon until it becomes soft and creamy. 

3. Add sugar gradually, creaming it with the butter. As 



242 FOOD AND COOKERY 

the butter becomes thick with sugar add part of the egg yolks, 
well-beaten. Continue adding sugar and egg alternately until 
all has been added. Keep the mixture the same consistency 
throughout the process of mixing. 

4. Add the flavoring and beat well. 

5. Add one- third of the dry material and one-third of the 
milk. Beat well. 

6. Add another third of the dry materials and another 
third of the milk and beat again. 

7. Add the rest of the dry materials and after beating 
them into the mixture, add enough more milk to make a soft 
drop batter. 

8. Beat the whites of the eggs to a stiff froth, add them to 
the cake mixture and cut and fold them in. The whites should 
be well mixed with the rest of the batter but the air cells formed 
by beating the whites of the eggs must not be broken down. The 
expansion of the air by the heat of the oven is to help to make 
the cake rise. 

Note. — Cakes are lighter if the whites are added last, but a very 
good plain cake can be made by beating the whites and yolks together 
and adding them to the butter and sugar. 

Cutting and Folding. 

To cut and fold two mixtures together, pour one mixture 
onto the other, then put the edge of the spoon into the center 
of the dish, lift a spoonful of the batter and turn it over. Con- 
tinue doing this until the two mixtures are well blended. A 
tablespoon is better for this purpose than a mixing spoon, as 
the sharp edge of the tablespoon will cut through the batter 
without mashing as many of the air cells as the broad edge of 
the wooden spoon would. 






CAKE MIXTURES AND PUDDINGS 243 



Baking. 



The same oven tests and methods of baking are nsed for 
butter cakes as are used for muffins. Layer cakes and cup cakes 
will need a hotter oven than will be needed for a loaf cake. 

Cake will bake more quickly and more evenly in a "Turk's 
head" pan (one with a funnel through the center) than it will 
in a large solid loaf. If the cake contains molasses, it needs a 
slower fire towards the end of the baking to keep it from scorch- 
ing. 

Cookies. 

Cookies are cake doughs mixed thick enough to roll out or 
thick enough to hold their shape when dropped by spoonfuls on 
a greased baking sheet. 

Cookies should be baked in a quick oven. 

PUDDINGS. 

The French word "boudin" from which our word pudding 
is supposed to have come, means sausage. Though we still have 
a few meat sausages that are called puddings, the word is gener- 
ally understood to mean a boiled, baked or steamed dessert, 
composed of several different foods as apples and bread crumbs, 
biscuit dough and fruit, rice, milk and eggs, etc. 

Puddings are usually served warm with a pudding sauce 
or cream poured over them. 

Left over pieces of cake, stale bread, stewed fruit, boiled 
rice, etc., can be made into palatable and nourishing puddings 
that will not be recognized as "warmed over" foods. 

Care should be taken to have a light pudding follow a heavy 
meal and the hearty, nourishing pudding to supplement the light 
meal. The time honored plum pudding to complete a five or 
six course Christmas dinner is a crime against good digestion. 






244 FOOD AND COOKERY 

LABORATORY EXERCISES. 

CAKES. 

Feather Cake. 

6 T. butter 1 C. (?) milk 

1$ C. sugar 3 C. flour 

3 eggs 5 t. baking powder 

2 t. vanilla 

1. Grease cake pan well, put a sheet of white paper in 
bottom of the pan and grease it. 

2. Sift flour, baking powder and salt together three times. 

3. Cream the butter and add the sugar and beaten egg 
alternately. Beat well. 

4. Add -J of the flour mixture and i of the milk to the 
butter, sugar and egg and beat well. 

5. Add another third of the flour and milk and beat again. 

6. Add the rest of the flour and enough more milk to make 
a soft drop batter. 

7. Add vanilla and beat well. 

8. Put cake into pan at once and bake in a moderate oven. 



Spice 


Cake. 

4 T. butter 




2| C. flour " 




i C. sugar . 

1 egg and 1 yolk 

iC. New Orleans molasses 

i'C. (?) sour milk 


2 t. cinnamon 
f t. cloves 
1 t. soda 
i t. salt 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Grease cake pan. 

Sift flour, soda, salt and spice 

Cream the butter and add the 


together three times, 
sugar, egg and molasses. 



Beat well. 



CAKE MIXTURES AND PUDDINGS 245 

4. Add flour and milk alternately, adding just enough of 
the last third of the milk to make a soft drop batter. 

5. Bake in a moderate oven. 

Note. — This cake may be baked in two layers and put together 
with uncooked icing. 

Uncooked Icing. 

1 egg white 1 t. lemon juice or 

7 K. t. powdered sugar J. t. flavoring extract 

1. Beat egg white very stiff. 

2. Add sugar 1 t. at a time beating with Dover egg beater 
after each addition. 

3. Add flavoring and spread icing between layers and on 
top of cake. 

Note. — This will make enough icing for a two layer cake. 

Oatflake Cookies. 

| C. shortening 1 t. cinnamon 

1 C. sugar f t. soda 

2 eggs 1 C. oatflake (rolled oats) 
If C. flour i C. sour milk 

J t. salt 1 C. chopped raisins 

1. Wash and chop raisins. 

2. Grease baking sheet. 

3. Sift flour, soda, salt and cinnamon together. 

4. Cream shortening and add sugar and beaten egg alter- 
nately. 

5. Mix one-third of flour with raisins. 

6. Add rest of flour and part of milk to sugar and eggs. 

7. Add oatflake and raisins and enough milk to make a 
stiff drop batter. 



246 FOOD AND COOKERY 

8. Drop by teaspoonfuls on greased baking sheet, keeping 
cookies one inch apart. 

9. Bake in hot oven about fifteen minutes. 

10. Remove from baking sheet as soon as baked. 

Eggless Cookies. 

3 T. shortening 4 t. baking powder 
f C. sugar J t. salt 

f C. (?) milk 1 t. cinnamon 

2 C. flour \ t. allspice 

1. Grease and flour baking sheet. 

2. Mix and sift flour, baking powder, salt and spice. 

3. Cream shortening and add sugar. Moisten with part of 
the milk while creaming. 

4. Add flour and milk alternately until all the flour has 
been added and enough milk to make a soft dough. 

5. Turn onto a floured board and roll one-fourth inch thick. 

6. Cut with floured cookie cutter and bake in hot oven 
about fifteen minutes. 

Note. — One t. vanilla may be used instead of the spice. The biscuit 
method of mixing may be used. 

Peanut Cookies. 

4 T. butter 3 t. baking powder 
i C. sugar \ t. salt 

2 eggs i C. milk 

2 C. flour 1 t. lemon juice 

1 C. chopped peanuts 

1. Mix by cake method of mixing. Mixture should be a 
stiff drop batter. 



CAKE MIXTURES AND PUDDINGS 247 

2. Drop by teaspoonfuls on greased baking sheet, keeping 
eookies one inch apart. 

3. Place one-half of a peanut on top of each and bake in a 
moderate oven about fifteen minutes. 

Note. — Three cups of peanuts in the shell will make about one 
cupful of shelled peanuts. 

Scottish Macaroons, 

2 eggs i t. salt 

i C. sugar 1 t. baking powder 

1 C. rolled oats f T. butter (melted) 

i C. cream of wheat or J C. shredded cocoanut 
fine bread crumbs 

1. Beat eggs and add sugar gradually. 

2. Add remaining ingredients and drop mixture by tea- 
spoonfuls one inch apart on greased baking sheet. 

3. Bake in moderate oven until brown. 

4. Kemove from baking sheet as soon as they come from 
the oven. 

PUDDINGS. 

Rice Pudding. 

2 C. boiled rice spk. salt 

1 egg 1 pt. scalded milk 

\ C. sugar \ C. raisins 

spk. nutmeg 

1. Pick over and wash raisins. 

2. Beat egg, add sugar, salt and hot milk. 

3. Stir in rice and raisins and turn into a buttered pudding 
dish. 



248 FOOD AND COOKERY 

4. Set pudding dish in pan of water and bake in moderate 
oven until a knife thrust into center of pudding will come out 
clean. 

Bread Pudding. 

1 pt. scalded milk \ C. sugar 

1 C. stale bread crumbs \ t. salt 

1 egg 1 t. vanilla or lemon extract 

1. Soak bread in milk until soft. 

2. Beat egg and add sugar, salt and flavoring. 

3. Add milk and crumbs and turn into buttered pudding 
dish. 

4. Bake same as rice pudding, 
i Note. — Variations: 

(a) One-half cup raisins or currants may be added to plain bread 
pudding. 

(b) Chocolate bread pudding may be made by adding 3 T. cocoa 
to sugar. 

(c) Yolks of two eggs may be used instead of one whole egg. 

A meringue, made by beating the whites of the eggs stiff and then 
adding 1 T. powdered sugar, may be spread over the pudding after it 
is baked. The pudding should then be set back into the oven to brown 
the meringue. 

Bread and Butter Pudding. 





2 eggs 
2 C. milk 
4 T. sugar 


spk. salt 

i C. raisins or currants 
stale bread 
butter 


1. 

butter. 


Cut stale bread 


in one-fourth inch slices and spread with 



CAKE MIXTURES AND PUDDINGS 249 

2. Cut slices into triangular shaped pieces and put a layer 
in the bottom of the buttered pudding dish. 

3. Cover with one-half the raisins which have been picked 
over and washed. 

4. Bepeat, having top layer buttered bread. 

5. Beat the eggs, add sugar, salt and scalded milk and 
pour mixture over pudding. 

6. Bake same as rice pudding. 

7. Serve with cream or hard sauce. 

Cottage Pudding. 

1 T. butter 2 C. flour 

i C. sugar 3 t. baking powder 

1 egg h t. salt 

f C. (?) milk. 

1. Mix by either cake method or batter method of mixing. 
Mixture should be a soft drop batter. 

2. Bake in a shallow pan in moderate oven. 

3. Cut in squares and serve hot with vanilla or lemon 
sauce. See Exercise XIV for Vanilla Sauce. 

Brown Betty. 

4 C. sliced apples J C. brown sugar 

2 C. soft bread crumbs \ t. cinnamon 
\ C. water \ t. nutmeg 

\ lemon, juice and \ C. butter 

grated rind 

1. Melt the butter and stir the crumbs into it. 

2. Mix sugar, cinnamon, nutmeg and lemon rind. 

3. Put one-third of the crumbs into a buttered baking dish. 

4. Add one-half the apples. 



250 POOD AND COOKERY 

5. Sprinkle with one-half the mixed sugar and spices, add 
one-half the water and lemon juice. 

6. Bepeat. Cover with the remaining crumbs and bake 
about forty-five minutes. Cover at first to prevent crumbs 
browning too fast. 

7. Serve with cream and sugar or lemon sauce. 

Hard Sauce. 

i C. butter i t. lemon extract 

1 C. powdered sugar -J t. vanilla 
spk. nutmeg 

1. Cream butter and add sugar gradually. 

2. Add vanilla and lemon extract. 

3. Heap on serving dish and sprinkle nutmeg over the 
top. 

4. Put in ice box until ready to serve. 

Note. — The stiffly beaten white of an egg may be beaten into the 
sauce after the flavoring has been added. It will make the sauce lighter 






CAKE MIXTURES AND PUDDINGS 251 

NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 



252 FOOD AND COOKERY 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 






1. Rice pudding, bread pudding, and bread and butter 
pudding are variations of what recipe! 

2. Why should the former puddings be baked in a pan of 
water 1 



CAKE MIXTURES AND PUDDINGS 253 

READING NOTES. 



254 



FOOD AND COOKERY 
HOME WORK. 



Date. 



Name of Dish. 



Result. 



Remarks. 




SALADS 
EXERCISE XVIII. 



255 




SALADS. 

Long ago the word salad suggested a dish of green herbs 
dressed with salt, vinegar and other condiments; now the word 
means salted. Eggs, meat, fish, nearly all kinds of vegetables, 
fruits, and nuts are combined with a slightly acidulated dress- 
ing containing salt, pepper, mustard, oil, butter, or cream. 

At present salads are used more extensively in France than 
in any other country, although they are rapidly gaining favor 
in America. 

That salads were used extensively by the people of anti- 
quity is proven by the writings carved upon the Pyramids which 
show how much garlic, radishes and onions were eaten by the 
workmen during their building. Herodotus tells us that the cost 
of these vegetables amounted to sixteen hundred talents of 
silver, or more than one million dollars. 



256 FOOD AND COOKERY 

The early Jews served lettuce, dandelions, mint, etc., com- 
bined with oil and vinegar at the Passover. Romans regulated 
the use of vegetables by law, compelling the people to combine 
them freely with meats in their dietaries. 

Salad Plants. 

Chief among salad plants is lettuce which belongs to the 
dandelion family. It was probably first cultivated on some of 
the islands of the Mediterranean Sea. In 1520 it was introduced 
into England and during the reign of Henry VII, the gardener 
at York Palace received a reward for bringing lettuce and cher- 
ries to Hampton Court. Today lettuce is universally cultivated 
in hot houses and gardens and may be obtained all the year 
round. 

Endive, sometimes called winter lettuce, belongs to the 
dandelion family. It was first cultivated in China and Japan 
and introduced into Europe in the sixteenth century. It is 
valued for salads because it may be obtained in the winter when 
there is a scarcity of other salad plants. 

Water cress belongs to the mustard family. It grows wild 
near springs and along the banks of small streams. It is culti- 
vated for market by sowing the seed along the margins of 
streams or in tanks of water in which a deep layer of sand has 
been placed. The garden variety is known as pepper grass. 

Celery is a native of Europe but it is now widely grown in 
our country, especially in Michigan, Ohio and New York. The 
seeds for the earliest celery are sown in hot beds and the plants 
are set out five or six weeks later, being banked up to keep the 
sun off and thus produce the white color. 

Celeriac, or the turnip rooted celery, is also used for salads. 

Chives is a hardy plant which grows wild in Europe. It is 

17 



SALADS 257 

cultivated for its delicate green leaves which are a good substi- 
tute for onions in salads, soups, etc. 

One of the most common salad plants is the cucumber, which 
belongs to the melon family. That it has long been cultivated 
is proven by reference made to it in the Old Testament. It 
came into general use in England in the seventeenth century. 
It is commonly made into pickles, especially a variety known as 
gherkin. 

Food Value. 

The salad plants have but little food value, yet they are 
refreshing, wholesome and appetizing. 

The green vegetables contain mineral salts necessary to the 
well being of our bodies, the oil (either olive, cotton seed or 
corn oil) or butter used in the dressing are easily digested 
forms of fat while the lemon juice or vinegar gives sufficient acid. 

In the more complex salads, nutritious foods are mixed 
with those that are savory or crisp. 

Care of Salad Plants. 

Great care must be exercised in the cleansing of all salad 
plants. Cut off the earthy roots, remove coarse or discolored 
leaves, then wash thoroughly even though they look clean. Each 
lettuce leaf must be carefully examined lest tiny insects of the 
same color cling to it. Other salad plants must be cared for in 
the same way. 

After thorough cleansing let them stand about half an hour 
in very cold water to crisp them, then drain and dry by swinging 
in a wire basket, a piece of net or cheese cloth. Wrap in a soft 
cloth or place in a covered dish then set in a cool place until 
serving time. If any water clings to the leaves, it must be care- 



258 r; FOOD AND COOKERY 

fully wiped off with a soft cloth before the dressing is added, for 

if the leaves are wet the dressing will run off. 

Garnishes. 

To fringe celery, cut off roots and leaves and scrape off any 
brown spots, then wash and cut in two-inch lengths. Beginning 
on the round side at one end, cut down one-half inch, making as 
many thin slices as possible, then turn the stalk and cut these 
slices in the opposite direction. Cut the opposite end in the same 
way. Place in very cold water and the ends will turn back. A 
few drops of lemon juice or vinegar in the water helps to keep 
the celery white and crisp. Use the delicate tips and leaves in 
garnishing. 

Radishes may be cut to represent tulips. Use round rad- 
ishes, wash, cut off the leaves and rootlets, beginning at the root 
end make five or six incisions three-fourths the length of the rad- 
ish; then slip the knife under the sections of skin and cut down 
as far as the incisions extend. Place in cold water and the sec- 
tions of skin will turn back, giving a flower-like appearance. 

To shred lettuce lay several leaves together and cut in one- 
fourth inch strips with the shears. 

Salad Accompaniments. 

If the salad is to be served as a separate course, wafers, 
bread and butter sandwiches, cheese sandwiches, lettuce sand- 
wiches, or cheese straws may be served. If the salad is a light one 
even chopped meat or egg sandwiches may be served with it. 
Salted nuts and olives often accompany the salad course. 

Points in Salad Making. 

Judgement, deftness, and skill are required in salad making, 
as a salad must not be oily nor acid; but well blended, fresh, 
attractive, and appetizing both in appearance and taste. 



SALADS 259 

Salads are easily prepared and require no expense for fuel. 

Some vegetables suitable for salads may be obtained all the 
year round. 

All green vegetables must be clean, crisp and cold. 

Salad materials that are cut should be uniform in shape. 

Meat for salad must be freed from skin and gristle. 

To marinate means to pickle, that is, add salt, pepper, oil, 
and acid to salad ingredients and allow to stand until well seas- 
oned. 

All cooked vegetables or meat salads should be marinated 
before serving. Any salad dressing may be used to marinate a 
salad but French dressing is most often used. This marinating 
liquid is called a marinade. 

The marinade must be carefully drained off before a mayon- 
naise or boiled dressing is added, lest it thin the dressing. 

The ingredients composing a salad should not be combined 
until time for serving. 

Where salads are dressed at the table, mix oil and season- 
ings, pour over the materials and toss until every part is well 
coated, then add the lemon juice or vinegar and toss again. If 
the acid is added first, the oil will not cling. 

To vary the flavor, rub the salad bowl with a clove of garlic 
or slice of onion or rub a piece of bread with garlic and place 
in the bowl. 



260 FOOD AND COOKERY 

LABORATORY EXERCISES. 

SALAD DRESSINGS. 

French Dressing. 

i t. salt 2 T. lemon juice or vinegar 

i t. pepper 4 to 6 T. olive oil 

1. Mix the seasonings. 

2. Add the olive oil and mix well. 

3. Add the acid, a few drops at a time and beat well nntil 
the dressing thickens slightly. 

Note. — French dressing may he varied by rubbing the bowl ivith 
a clove of garlic or a slice of onion or by the addition of celery salt, 
horse-radish, mustard, Worcestershire sauce, tomato catsup, etc. 

Boiled Dressing. 

1 C. weak vinegar \ C. sugar 

1 t. mustard Few grains cayenne 

\ t. salt 4 T. butter or olive oil 

i t. pepper 2 eggs 

2 T. flour 1 C. cream or milk 

1. Mix dry ingredients. 

2. Add eggs and beat well. 

3. Heat vinegar to the boiling point and pour slowly over 
the above mixture while stirring. 

4. Cook over hot water, stirring constantly until thickened. 

5. Add olive oil or butter. 

6. Thin with sweet or sour cream. 






SALADS 261 

Cream Dressing. 

i t. salt | C. sweet or sour cream 

Few grains cayenne 1 egg 

1 t. mustard 3 T. butter 

1 t. sugar 3 T. vinegar or lemon juice 

i T. flour 

1. Mix dry ingredients. 

2. Add egg and beat well. 

3. Add butter or olive oil and cream. 

4. Cook over hot water, stirring constantly until thickened. 

5. Remove from the fire, add vinegar slowly while stirring. 

Dressed Lettuce, Endive or Water Cress 

1. Wash, crisp and dry materials. 

2. Arrange attractively in a salad dish. 

3. Serve with French dressing. 

Note. — Sliced tomatoes, cucumbers, radishes, may be served on all 
of the above salads. 

Cabbage Salad. 

1. Remove wilted leaves from a small head of cabbage and 
let stand in cold water until crisp. 

2. Cut out the stalk, dry and chop the cabbage fine. 

3. Serve with salad dressing. 

Note. — 1 C. finely cut celery or peanuts may be added. 

Potato Salad No. 1. 

2 C. boiled potatoes cut in cubes 1 C. diced cucumbers 
1 C. celery \ small onion 

Salad dressing to moisten 



262 FOOD AND COOKERY 

1. Mix lightly. 

2. Add salad dressing. 

3. Garnish with hard cooked eggs, celery tips, curled 
celery, or thin slices of radish. 

Potato Salad No. 2. 

6 medium sized boiled 1 sweet red pepper (fresh or 

potatoes canned) 

3 apples 2 C. celery 

1 small onion 3 C. (?) salad dressing 

1. Cut potatoes and apples in ^-inch cubes. (Drop apples 
into salad dressing as soon as cut to keep them from turning 
dark.) 

2. Chop onion and pepper very fine. 

3. Cut celery into i-inch pieces. 

4. Mix all together lightly and moisten with ^ the salad 
dressing. 

5. Let stand in cold place one hour, then drain off all the 
thin liquid in bottom of dish and add rest of salad dressing. 

6. Serve on lettuce leaf. 

Cucumber and Tomato Salad. 

1. Peel tomatoes. The skin may be easily loosened by 
first scraping the surface of the tomato with the back of a 
vegetable knife, and then peel. If the tomatoes are scalded to 
remove the skins, they are not so firm. 

2. Slice tomatoes on a bed of lettuce. 

3. Dice cucumbers and pile on each side. 

4. Serve with French or mayonnaise dressing. 






SALADS % 263 

Daisy Salad. i 

Hard cooked eggs Mayonnaise or boiled dressing 

1. Cut whites in long strips. 

2. Arrange on a bed of lettnce or cress as the petals of h 
daisy. 

3. Pnt yolks in the center or mash through a potato ricer 
and sprinkle over the salad. 

4. Put a spoonful of dressing at one side of the lettuce. 




Water Lily Salad. 

6 hard cooked eggs 1 head lettuce 
boiled salad dressing 

1. Wash lettuce thoroughly. 

2. Save 6 medium sized perfect leaves and cut the rest into 
thin shreds. 

3. Remove the shells from the eggs and cut each egg 
around the center in points like this AAA being careful to push 
the point of the knife through to the center of the yolk. 

4. Separate each egg into halves when cut. 

5. Mix shredded lettuce with salad dressing. 



264 FOOD AND COOKERY 

6. Arrange whole lettuce on individual plates. 

7. Make a nest of the shredded lettuce on each whole leaf 
and put a spoonful of dressing on each. 

8. Place eggs on the salad dressing. 

9. Serve cold. 

Stuffed Egg Salad. 

6 hard cooked eggs J C. boiled ham finely chopped 

1. Cut eggs in half lengthwise, keeping whites in pairs. 

2. Remove yolks and mash or put through a potato ricer. 

3. Add ham. 

4. Mix with salad dressing. 

5. Form into balls, refill whites. 

6. Arrange on lettuce leaves. 

7. Place a teaspoonful of salad dressing beside each egg. 

Salmon Salad. 

1 can salmon drained, 1 C. celery 

boned and flaked 1 small onion minced 

3 small boiled potatoes 
diced 

1. Mix materials lightly. 

2. Pour over marinating liquid and let stand until seas- 
oned. 

3. Drain, add salad dressing. 

4. Serve on lettuce. 

5. Garnish with thin slices of lemon dipped in finely cut 
parsley. 

Banana Salad. 

1. Peel bananas and cut in half lengthwise. 



SALADS 265 

2. Roll in mayonnaise or cream dressing. 

3. Sprinkle with nut meats broken by hand. 

4. Serve on lettuce. 

Waldorf Salad. 

2 C. diced apples 1 C. English walnut meats 

1 C. cubed celery broken by hand 

Salad dressing 

1. Mix ingredients and moisten with salad dressing. 

2. Serve on lettuce or remove the tops from red or green 
apples, scoop out the pulp and refill the shells with the salad. 

Note. — The diced apples shoidd be mixed with the dressing or 
dropped into acidulated water at once or they will turn black. 



266 FOOD AND COOKERY 

NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 



SALADS 267 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

1. Give several reasons for using salads in the dietary. 

2. Plan two dinners and two luncheons, using a salad in 
each. Explain why you selected each salad for each menu. 

3. Begin a salad calendar. For each month put down the 
names of the salad plants, most easily obtained in your locality 
at that time. 



268 FOOD AND COOKERY 

READING NOTES. 

Read concerning the planting, care and cultivation of some 
one salad plant. Make notes on same. 






SALADS ' 
HOME WORK. 



269 



Date. 



Name of Dish. 



Results. 



Remarks. 




270 



FOOD AND COOKERY 
EXERCISE XIX. 



/ 




ICES AND ICE CREAMS. 



In the summer time, especially, frozen desserts are accept- 
able. If eaten slowly and in moderate quantities they are not 
only harmless but beneficial. It frequently happens in some 
cases of stomach trouble that ice cream is the only nourish- 
ment the patient can take for a time. It is absolutely necessary 
in such instances to know that the ice cream is pure and whole- 
some. If it is made at home, one can be sure that nothing of a 
harmful nature gets into the dessert. 



ICES AND ICE CREAMS 271 

Classification of Frozen Desserts. 

Made with Water. 

1. Water ice — water, fruit juice, and sugar. 

2. Granite — a water ice containing small pieces of fruit. 

3. Frappe — a water ice frozen very rapidly so that it is 
coarse grained, with little crystals of ice in it. 

4. Sherbet — a water ice with either beaten white of egg 
or dissolved gelatine added when mixture is half frozen to give 
the consistency of cream. 

Made with Milk. 

1. Philadelphia ice cream — cream, milk, sugar, flavoring. 

2. French ice cream — a custard of eggs, milk and sugar 
with cream and flavoring added. 

3. Mousse — whipped cream, sweetened and flavored, froz- 
en without stirring. 

4. Frozen Puddings — a custard with various fruits, flav- 
oring and thickenings added. 

Principles of Freezing. 
Experiments: 

1. Test with a thermometer the temperature of (1) water, 
(2) cracked ice, (3) cracked ice and salt. 

2. Set a tin cup of water into a bowl of cracked ice and 
another into a bowl of cracked ice and salt. In half an hour test 
the temperature of the water in each cup — Notice the frost on 
the outside of the bowl containing the ice and salt. Where did 
the moisture that has condensed on the outside of the bowl 
come from? 



272 FOOD AND COOKERY 

When a solid changes to a liquid it takes up heat frorn 
surroundings. For example, when the ice in the ice box changes 
to water it absorbs heat from the butter and other food in the 
ice box, making them colder. The faster the ice melts, the 
faster it will absorb heat. 

We make use of this fact in freezing ices and ice creams. 

We put the mixture that we wish to freeze into a metal can 
because heat passes through metal easily. We set this can 
into a wood tub (wood is a poor conductor of heat) and pack 
ice and salt between the can and tub. If the outside receptacle 
were made of metal it would take longer and would use more 
ice to freeze the cream because the ice would absorb as much 
heat from the air outside as it did from the cream inside the 
can. 

Salt makes ice melt, therefore if we add salt to the cracked 
ice, the mixture in the can will freeze still more quickly. Even 
the melting of the salt in the ice water causes a little heat to 
be taken up from the cream. 




Directions for Freezing. 

1. Scald the can and dasher. Be sure the water is boiling' 



18 



ICES AND ICE CREAMS 273 

hot so that the can will be perfectly sterilized. Cases of 
ptomaine poisoning have been traced to ice cream coming from 
a can that was not sterilized. Ice cream that has been allowed 
to stand and melt shonld not be re-frozen for fear that the bac- 
teria have had time to work in it. If there is any left-over ice 
cream and it cannot be repacked and kept frozen, it should be 
put into a double boiler, before it has time to melt, and thor- 
oughly scalded. It may then be put into the ice box and frozen 
later or used to make bread puddings or custards. 

2. Place the can in the pail, fit all parts together and turn 
the crank to see that every part is working properly. 

3. Remove cover and put mixture to be frozen into the 
can. Do not fill the can more than three-fourths full as the 
mixture expands in freezing. Replace the cover and pack with 
ice and salt. 

4. To prepare the ice and salt, place the ice in a burlap 
bag and pound with a mallet until the ice is broken into small 
pieces. 

5. Fill the space between the can and tub with alternate 
layers of ice and rock salt. Use one measure of salt to three 
measures of ice. If more salt is used the cream will freeze so 
rapidly it will be coarse grained. The ice and salt may be 
mixed together before the freezer is packed instead of putting 
them around the tub in alternate layers. 

6. Turn the crank steadily until the mixture is frozen. 

7. Remove the dasher and pack the cream solidly in the 
can. 

8. Put a clean cloth or piece of paraffin paper over the 
top of the can and fit a cork tightly into the hole in the cover. 

9. Drain the water from the freezer, repack with ice and 
salt and allow the cream to stand an hour or more to "ripen." 



274 FOOD AND COOKER!' 

This makes the cream better flavored and more solid than if 
it is used as soon as it is frozen. 




LABORATORY EXERCISES. 
Lemon Ice. 

1 qt. water J C. lemon juiee 

2 C. sugar J t. vanilla extract 

1. Boil sugar and water together for 10 minutes. 

2. Cool the syrup and add the lemon juice. 

3. Turn into the freezer and freeze. 

Orange Ice. 

1 qt. water 2 C. orange juice 

2 C. sugar J C. lemon juice 
Make the same as lemon ice. 

Pineapple Ice. 

1 qt. water J C. lemon juice 

2 C. sugar 1 can pineapple or 1 fresh 

pineapple 



ICES AND ICE CREAMS 275 

1. Chop pineapple very fine. 

2. Add pineapple to syrup and lemon juice. 

3. Freeze the same as lemon ice. 

Strawberry Ice. 

1 qt. water 1 qt. strawberries 

2 C. sugar J C. lemon juice 

1. Rub berries through colander. 

2. Add to remaining ingredients and make the same as 
lemon ice. 

Note.- — // whole fruit of any kind is to be added to any frozen 
dessert, it must first be preserved in sugar syrup or in alcohol to take 
up the water. Otherwise the pieces of fruit will be hard lumps of ice 
when the cream is frozen. 

Sherbets. 

To any of the recipes for fruit ices add one stiffly beaten 
egg white when the mixture is half frozen. Stir in the egg white 
thoroughly with a long handled wooden spoon, then finish 
freezing. 

Philadelphia Vanilla Ice Cream. 

1 pt. cream \ t. salt 

1 pt. milk 1 T. vanilla 

1 C. sugar 

1. Mix ingredients together. 

2. Stir until sugar is dissolved then freeze. 



276 FOOD AND COOKERY 

French Vanilla Ice Cream. 

2 C. scalded milk 1 egg 

f C. sugar 1 pt. cream 

i t. salt 1 T. vanilla 

1. Beat egg and add sugar and salt. 

2. Add the scalded milk, while stirring. 

3. Pour into double boiler and cook ten minutes, stirring 
constantly. 

4. When cool, add the cream and vanilla. 

5. Turn into freezer and freeze. 

Note. — If the cream is thick enough to whip, put one-half of it into 
the upper part of the double boiler, put cold water in the lower 
part, then beat the cream with Dover egg beater until thick. Stir this 
into the custard when the custard is half frozen. This will make a 
much smoother ice cream. 

Chocolate Ice Cream. 

1. Add two squares of melted chocolate to the hot custard 
in recipe for French vanilla ice cream. 

2. Cool and freeze. 

Strawberry Ice Cream. 

Mash 2 C. of strawberries with 1 C. sugar and add to either 
recipe for vanilla ice cream. 

Apricot Ice Cream. 

| lb. dried apricots. 1 pt. cream 
2 C. sugar i t. salt 

2 C. scalded milk 2 eggs 

1. Pick over and wash apricots. 

2. Cover with water and let stand several hours. 






ICES AND ICE CREAMS 277 

3. Put on to cook in water in which they were soaked. 

4. Simmer until soft, then rub through colander. 

5. Make custard of sugar, milk, salt and eggs. 

6. Add cream and freeze. 

7. When half frozen stir in the apricot pulp and finish 
freezing. 

Note. — Almost any dried fruit may be used. 

Frozen Rice Pudding. 

J C. rice 1 C. sugar 

1 qt. milk 1 T. vanilla 

1 egg 1 C. figs chopped fine 

1. Cook rice in milk in upper part of double boiler for f 
of an hour. 

2. Beat egg, add sugar and salt. 

3. Stir the rice and milk into the egg, then return the 
mixture to the double boiler and cook for five minutes. 

4. Cool, add vanilla and chopped figs and freeze. 
Raspberry Mousse. 

1 qt. cream H T. granulated gelatine 

3 C. raspberries J C. water 

1 C. sugar 

1. Wash and pick over berries. 

2. Add sugar and let stand one hour. 

3. Rub through a fruit sieve. 

4. Add water to gelatine. 

5. Let stand ten minutes then set bowl into hot water until 
gelatine is dissolved. 

6. Add gelatine to raspberries and stir until mixture begins 
to thicken, then fold in the stiffly beaten cream. 

7. Put into a mold, cover tightly and pack in ice and salt. 
(1 part salt to 2 parts ice.) Let stand four hours. 



278 FOOD AND COOKERY 

NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 






ICES AND ICE CREAMS 379 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

1. Why do we have paddles and a dasher in an ice cream 
freezer ? Why are they not needed in making mousse ? 

2. Compare the cost of strawberry ice with the cost of 
strawberry ice cream. Which is more nourishing? 

3. Is a dish that contains very little food value of any 
use in the diet? 



280 tfOOD AND COOKERY 

READING NOTES. 

References: 

Lynde's Household Physics. 



ICES AND ICE CREAMS 
HOME WORK. 



28 J 



Date. 



Name of Dish. 



Results. 



Remarks. 




282 FOOD AND COOKERY 

EXERCISE XX. 
CRANBERRIES. 

Introduction. 

The cranberry is one of the few fruits that can be obtained 
fresh during the winter season. Because of the large amount 
of acid and small amount of sugar present, it does not spoil 
readily and can be kept in barrels or crates for weeks after har- 
vesting. The only care that must be taken is to keep the fruit 
from freezing. 

Less than seven per cent of the cranberry is sugar, there- 
fore, its chief value is in the mineral matter it contains. It is 
also valuable as an appetizer. 

We usually think of cranberry sauce in connection with 
roast turkey or roast chicken, just as we associate baked apples 
with pork, and currant jelly with roast lamb. The acids of these 
fruits are said to aid in the digestion of the fat in the meat. 

Cranberries may also be used for dessert in pies, puddings 
and ices, or the stewed fruit may be served with cake. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES. 

Cranberry Jelly. 

1 qt. cranberries \\ C. water 

2 medium sized apples 2 C. sugar 

1. Pick over and wash cranberries also wash, pare, core 
and slice apples. 

2. Add water and boil until berries and apples are soft, 
then strain. 



CRANBERRIES 283 

3. Add sugar to fruit juice and cook until a little dropped 
on a cold saucer will harden like jelly. 

4. Turn into a mould which has been wet in cold water. 

5. When ready to serve, turn out of mould into serving 
dish. 

Cranberry Marmalade. 

1 qt. cranberries 1| C. water 

2 medium sized apples 2 C. sugar 

1. Pick over and wash cranberries, also wash, pare, core 
and slice apples. 

2. Add water to berries and apples then cook until every 
berry has burst. 

3. Add sugar and boil until it will drop in a thick drop 
from the spoon, or until a little dropped onto a cold saucer will 
harden like jelly. 

4. Pour into molds wet in cold water. 

Note. — For filling cranberry pies, make the same as cranberry 
marmalade, only do not cook it as long after the sugar is added. 

Cranberry Sauce. 

1 qt. cranberries 1-J C. sugar 

l'-J C. boiling water 

1. Pick over and wash berries. 

2. Add sugar and boiling water and boil ten minutes. 

3. Serve cold. 

Cranberry Pudding. 

2 C. cranberry marmalade f C. (?) milk 

1 egg 2 C. flour 

2 T. butter 3 t. baking powder 
J C. sugar i t. salt 



284 FOOD AND COOKERY 

1. Sift flour, baking powder and salt together three times, 

2. Add half the milk to the beaten egg and stir into the 
dry materials. 

3. Add enough more milk to make a drop batter. 

4. Melt butter and stir into the mixture. 

5. Grease a baking dish, preferably a cake pan with a 
funnel in the center. 

6. Pour marmalade into the bottom of the pan and pour 
the batter on top of the marmalade. 

7. Bake in a moderate oven until the crust pulls away from 
the sides of the tin and feels firm when pressed lightly with the 
finger. 

8. When the pudding is done, turn it wrong side up on a 
plate and serve with either vanilla sauce or hard sauce. 

Cranberry Roly Poly. 

2 C. flour 2 T. sugar 

4 t. baking powder 3 T. lard or butter 
i t. salt f C. (?) milk 

1 C. cranberry marmalade. 

1. Mix and sift dry materials three times. 

2. Cut in lard with two knives. 

3. Add enough milk to make a soft dough. 

4. Turn onto a floured board and roll one-half inch thick. 

5. Spread with marmalade and roll up like jelly roll. Be 
careful not to have marmalade too near the edge of the dough. 

6. Place in buttered dish and steam 11 hours. 

7. Serve in slices with foamy sauce. 



CRANBERRIES 285 

Foamy Sauce. 

J C. sugar 2 T. butter 

2 T. flour 1 t. vanilla 
1 C. boiling water 1 egg white 

1. Mix sugar and flour together. 

2. Add boiling water and cook five minutes, stirring con- 
stantly. 

3. Remove from stove, add vanilla and butter, then pour 
onto the stiffly beaten egg white. Serve at once. 

Cranberry Ice. 

3 C. cranberries 1-J C. sugar 

4 C. water juice of 1 lemon 

1. Pick over and wash berries. 

2. Add one cup of water and boil 15 minutes, then rub 
through the strainer. 

3. Make a syrup by boiling sugar with the remaining 3 
cups of water. 

4. When cool, mix cranberry juice, syrup and lemon juice 
together. 

5. Put in freezer and freeze. (In packing freezer, allow 3 
0. of cracked ice to 1 C. of coarse salt.) 

Cranberry Sherbet. 

Make the same as cranberry ice. When half frozen, add 
the stiffly beaten white of one egg and finish freezing. 



286 FOOD AND COOKERY 

NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 



CRANBERRIES 28 r 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

Why do we seldom can cranberries? 



288 FOOD AND. COOKERY 

READING NOTES. 

Suggested Topic: 

Cranberry Culture. 

References: . . 

Government Bulletin No. 176. 
How the World Is Fed, Carpenter. 
World's Work for 1913. 



x'j 



CRANBERRIES 
HOME WORK. 



289 



Date. 



Name of Dish. 



Results. 



Remarks. 




290 



FOOD AND COOKERY 
EXERCISE XXI. 




CANDY. 



Sugar Manufacture. 

Sugar, the chief ingredient of all pure candies, is obtained 
from sugar cane, sugar beets and the sugar maple. The juice 
from these plants is boiled to evaporate the water and the syrup 
is then allowed to crystallize. 

To obtain a pure white granulated sugar, this raw sugar 
must then be subjected to a refining process, during which it is 
remelted, bleached, filtered and again boiled down until it is 
thick enough to crystallize, after this the sticks are cut into 
cubes by machinery. If granulated sugar is wanted, the syrup 
is poured into a centifrugal machine which whirls it around and 
around until the crystals of sugar are separated from the syrup. 



-CANDY 291 

Either the loaf sugar or the granulated sugar may be ground 
very fine and sold as powdered sugar. 

Molasses is a sweet, sticky, dark colored liquid which is 
separated from raw sugar during the crystallization process. 
This too is refined to produce different grades of syrup. 
Candy as a Food. 

Candy is a useful article of food if it be eaten at the right 
time and in proper quantities. It should be taken as any other 
food would be, at meal time and in small amounts. 
Candy Making. 

A sugar thermometer is a great help in the making of 
candies, but a little experience with a few simple tests, will enable 
anyone to tell when the candy reaches the desired temperature. 




Boiled Sugar Tests. 

1. The blow 230° 

2. The feather 232° 

Twist a broom straw into a loop at one end and dip it into 
the syrup. A film will form across the loop. Blow against this 
film; if it stretches out into a bubble, the blow stage has been 
reached. 

At the feather stage, the film will break and stand out from 
the loop with fine feathery edges. 



^ 



292 FOOD AND COOKERY 

3. Soft ball 238° 

4. Hard ball 248° 

Hold a teaspoon in a cup of ice water and drop a little syrup 
into the spoon. At the soft ball stage, this will form into a soft, 
elastic ball that will just hold its shape when held lightly 
between the fingers. At this stage a fine thread of sugar, at 
least three or four inches long, will fly from the end of the 
spoon like a cobweb. This is the icing test. 

At the hard ball stage, the ball will not be easily pressed out 
of shape. Hold the ball under the ice water while making the 
soft ball and hard ball tests. 

5. Crack 300° 

At this stage, the syrup will harden in ice water so that it 
will break off brittle when struck a sharp blow. 

6. Caramel 350° 

When sugar begins to caramelize, it changes to a yellow 
color. Care must be taken not to let the syrup burn. 

Hints on Candy Making. 

(1) Granite or aluminum kettles and wooden spoons are 
best for candy making. 

(2) Get everything ready to receive the cooked candy 
before starting to work. Sometimes a moment's delay at a 
critical point will ruin a whole batch of candy. Grease pans, get 
out waxed paper, shell and chop nuts, separate whites and yolks 
of eggs, if eggs are to be used, etc., etc. 

(3) If you wish candy to be fine grained or not to grain at 
all, do not stir it after it begins to boil. 

(4) A small amount of acid, as vinegar, lemon juice or 
cream of tartar, cooked with the sugar, will help to keep it from 
graining. 



CANDY 293 

(5) When pulling candy, do not pnt anything on the hands 
to keep the candy from sticking. Keep the hands as cool as 
possible and pnll with the tips of the fingers. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES. 

Peanut Brittle. 

1 C. granulated sugar J C. chopped peanuts 

1. Heat the sugar in a granite pan until it is melted, stir- 
ring constantly. Be careful not to burn it. This is called 
caramelized sugar. 

2. When sugar is melted add the chopped nuts and pour 
quickly onto a greased tin. 

3. Mark into squares when slightly cool. 

Note. — One cup of peanuts in the shell will make one-third cup of 
shelled peanuts. English walnuts may be used instead of peanuts. 
One pound of walnuts in the shell will make 1^ C. to 1-J C. walnut 
meats. 

Butter Scotch. 

2 C. brown sugar 4 T. butter 

i C. Karo syrup 3 T. vinegar 

4 T. water 

1. Mix ingredients in saucepan. 

2. Stir until it boils, and then cook without stirring to the 
crack stage. 

3. Pour into greased pan. 

4. Cut into squares when cool. 
Molasses Taffy. 

2 C. brown sugar 2 T. vinegar 

1 C. molasses 2 T. butter 

1 t. soda 



294 FOOD AND COOKERY 

1. Melt butter in kettle; add remaining ingredients and 
boil without stirring to the crack stage. 

2. Add soda, mix quickly and pour into buttered pans. 

3. As it cools, fold the edges of the candy to the center of 
the plate. 

4. When cool enough to handle, pull until almost white, 
then cut into sticks. 

Popcorn Balls. 

1 C. molasses 1 T. vinegar 

2 C. brown sugar 1 t. soda 

popcorn 

1. Follow directions for molasses taffy. 

2. Just before removing from the fire, stir in enough pop- 
corn to thicken it. 

3. Dip up the mixture by the spoonful and roll into balls 
as soon as it is cool enough to handle. Then roll these balls over 
and over in kernels of popcorn until no more will adhere to the 
balls. 

Note. — Shelled peanuts mixed with the popcorn make a delicious 
11 Cracker Jack." 

Panocha. 

2 C. brown sugar 1 C. cream or milk 

2 T. butter 1 t. vanilla 

J C. chopped nuts 

1. Cook sugar and cream and butter to soft ball test. 

2. Set sauce pan in a pan of cold water until cool enough 
so that you can hold your hand on the bottom of the sauce pan. 

3. Stir until the candy begins to thicken, add nuts and 
stir until it begins to sugar. 



CANDY 205 

4. Pour quickly on a buttered pan. 

5. Cut in squares and cool. 

Stuffed Dates. 

2 lbs. dates 2 oz. peanut butter 

-| C. English walnut meats fondant 

1. Separate and wash dates. 

2. Dry on a clean towel. 

3. Cut through one side of each date, lengthwise, and 
remove seeds. 

4. Fill the cavity in one-third of the dates with peanut 
butter and one-third with chopped English walnuts. 

5. Roll pieces of fondant the shape and size of the date 
seed, and place in the cavities of the remaining dates. 

6. Put \ C. granulated sugar in a paper bag. Drop in a 
few of the stuffed dates at a time and shake until coated with 
sugar. 

Uncooked Fondant. 

i C. cream 4 C. powdered sugar 

flavoring 

1. Stir powdered sugar into the cream a spoonful at a 
time until thick enough to knead with the hands. 

2. Work in the hands until smooth. Then separate into 
three or four pieces. 

3. Work a few drops of a different flavoring extract into 
each piece. 

4. Shape some of the cream into small balls and press half 
an English walnut kernel on each side. 

5. Fill some seeded dates with cream. 



296 FOOD AND COOKERY 

6. Mix shredded cocoarmt with some of the cream and form 
into balls. 

Note. — This makes a very good cream candy if used at once. It 
dries out and oe comes hard on standing. 

NOTES ON LABORATORY WORK. 



CANDY 297 

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

1. Visit a candy factory if possible. 

2. What part of the work is done by girls and women f 

3. How are they paid, by the hour or by piece work? 

4. Figure cost of one pound of home made candy, counting 
your time as of same value as girl in factory. 

5. Compare with cost of same grade of factory made candy. 

6. What is the glucose, that is used in candy factories so 
extensively? Is it harmful? 



298 FOOD AND COOKERY 

HEADING NOTES. 



CANDY 
HOME WORK. 



299 



Date. 



Name of Dish. 



Results. 



Remarks. 




INDEX 



INDEX 



Abbreviations, 3. 

Apple, Baked, 73. 

Apple Sauce, 172. 

Baking Powder, 206, 208. 

Batters, 194; Kinds of Batters, 194; 
Method of mixing, 196; Plain Muffins. 
198; Graham Muffins, 199; Rice Muf- 
fins, 199; Corn Cake, 200. 

Beef Cuts, 159; Composition of Lean 
Beef, 166. 

Beef Steaks, 163; Chuck, 163; Porter- 
house, 164; Loin, Round, 165; Flank, 
166. 

Beef Pot Roast, 171. 

Beef Stew, 170. 

Beverages, 177; Tea, 177; Coffee, 180; 
Cocoa, 182; Hot Tea, Iced Tea, 184; 
Boiled Coffee, Cold Water Coffee, Fil- 
tered Coffee, 185; Iced Coffee, Cocoa, 
Chocolate, 186. 

Biscuits, Baking Powder, 216; Emergency 
or Drop, 217; Cheese, 218; Raised, 236. 

Buckwheat Cakes. 234. 

Butter, 139. 

Bread, 235. 

Bread, (Perfect Loaf) 232; Raisin Bread. 
235; Graham Bread, 236. 

Bread Making, 223; Points in Bread Mak- 
ing, 227; Directions for Kneading, 228. 
229; Method of Mixing, 231. 

Bread Mixer. 230. 

Bread Sticks, 94. 

Cakes, 241; Butter Cakes, 241; Method 
of Mixing, 241; Baking, 243; Cookies, 
243; Feather Cake, Spice Cake, 244; 
Oatflake Cookies, 245; Eggless Cookies, 
Peanut Cookies, 246. 

Candy, 290; As a Food, Making, Tests, 
291; Hints, 292; Peanut Brittle, Butter 
Scotch, Molasses Taffv, 293; Popcorn 
Balls, Panocha, 294; Stuffed Dates, Un- 
cooked Fondant, 295. 

Cereals, 68; Composition, Buying and 
Storing, 69; Classification, 69; Use of 
Double Boiler, 71; Rolled Oats with 
1 5a nanas, Cream of Wheat with Rais- 
ins. 72; Corn Meal Mush, Fried Mush. 
74. 



Chocolate, 186. 

Chocolate Sauce, 141. 

Chocolate Ice Cream, 276. 

Cinnamon Rolls, 218. 

Coal Ranges, Daily Care, Building Coal 

Fire, 31. 
Cocoa, 182; History, Manufacture, 182; 

Composition, 183; Hints in Making. 

184; Cocoa, 186. 
Coffee, 180; History, 180; Manufacture, 

Composition, 181; Buying Coffee, 181. 
Cookies, 243; Oatflake, 245; Eggless. 

Peanut, 246. 
Corn Cake. 200. 
Cottage Cheese, 140. 
Cottage Pudding, 249. 
Cranberries, 282; Jelly. Marmalade, 

Sauce, Pudding, 283; Rolv Polv, 284; 

Ice, Sherbet, 285. 
Creamed Dishes, 79; Sauces. 80 and 81; 

(ream Toast, Creamed Cabbage, 82; 

Creamed Turnips. Creamed Peas, 

Creamed Dried Beef, 83; Creamed Salt 

Codfish, 84. 
Croutons. 94. 
Custards. 146; Kinds, Composition, Tests. 

Hints in Making, 147; Baked. 148; Soft 

Custard, Floating Island, 149; Tapioca 

Cream, Strawberry Custard, 150. 
Cuts of Meat, 158-162. 
Dining Room, 99; Decoration. Furniture, 

100; Floors, Care, 101. 
Dish Washing. 9. 
Duties of Housekeepers, 2, 3. 
Eggs, 122; Structure, Composition, 123; 

Preservation, 124; Tests for Fresh 

Eggs, 125; Soft Cooked Eggs, Hard 

Cooked Eggs, Goldenrod Eggs, Creamed 

Eggs, 127 ; Scrambled, Poached. Omelet, 

128. ' 
Eggs Tea Rolls. 217. 
Floating Island. 149. 
Flour, 192; Structure. Composition, 

Kinds, Wheat Flour, 193. 
Flour Mixtures, 192; Griddle Cakes, 197; 

Plain Muffins, 198; Graham Muffins. 

Rice Muffins. 199; Corn Cake, 200. 



INDEX 



Foamy Sauce. 285. 

Garbage Consumer. 20. 

Garbage Pail, 19. 

Gas Ranges. 28. 

General Instructions. 1. 

Ginger Bread. 208. 

Ginger Drops. 209. 

[ces and Ice Creams, Classification. Prin- 
ciples of Freezing. 271; Directions for 
Freezing. 272; Lemon Ice, Orange ice. 
Pineapple Ice. 274; Strawberry Ice. 
Sherbets. Vanilla Ice Cream. 275: 
Chocolate ice Cream. Strawberry Ice 
Cream. Apricot Ice Cream. 276; Frozen 
Rice Pudding. 277: Raspberry Mousse. 
277. 

Icing, Uncooked, 245. 

Imperial Sticks. 94. 

Kerosene Stoves. 34. 

Lamb. 161. 

Leavening Agents. 205. 

Macaroons. 247. 

Measures, 4. 

Meat. 157: Structure, Cuts, 158; Beef- 
steaks. 163; Composition. 166; Cook- 
ing of Meats, 168; Pan Broiled Steak, 
169; Hamburgh Steak, Creole Steak. 
Beef Stew. 170; Beef Pot Roast, 171: 
Veal Loaf. Broiled Bacon, 172. 

Milk, 134; Composition, 135; Care of 
Milk. 137: Pasteurization. 138; Sterili- 
zation. 139; Butter. Cottage Cheese, 
140: Rennet Dessert. Chocolate Sauce. 
141. 

Muffins. Plain. Graham. Rice. 198-199; 
Raised. 235. 

Mush. Coin Meal. Fried. 74. 

Pasteurization. 138. 

Potato White. 47; History, Structure. 
47: Composition. 48; Buying and Stor- 
ing. 49; Ways of Cooking. Baked, 
Boiled. 50; Mashed. Cream 51. 

Pork, 162; Broiled Bacon. 172. 

Puddings. 243: Rice Pudding. 247; Bread, 
Bread and Butter Pudding. 248; Cot- 
tage. Brown Betty, 249. 

Quick Doughs. 215; Method of Mixing. 
Baking Powder Biscuits, 216; Drop Bis- 
cuits. Egg Tea Rolls. 217; Cinnamon 
Rolls. Cheese Biscuit, 218. 

Refrigerators. 21; Substitutes for Re- 
frigerators, 24. 

Rennet Dessert. 141. 



Rice. 56; History, Preparation for Mar- 
ket. Classification, Composition, Ways 
of Serving. 59; Boiled Rice, Steamed 
Rice. 61; with Parsley, with Tomato 
Sauce. Curry Sauce, 62; Fscalloped 
Rice. 63. 

Rolls, Egg Tea Rolls. 217: Cinnamon 
Rolls. 218. 

Salads. 255: Salad Plants. 256; Food 
Value, Care of Salad Plants. 257; Gar- 
nishes. Salad Accompaniments. 258; 
French Dressing. Boiled Dressing. 200; 
Cream Dressing. Cabbage Salad. Potato 
Salad. 201 ; Cucumber and Tomato 
Salad. 262; Daisy Salad. Water Lilv 
Salad. 203; Stuffed Egg Salad, Salmon 
Salad. 264; Waldorf Salad. 205. 

Sauces. 73; Thin White. Medium White. 
80; Thick White. Methods of Mixing. 
81; Chocolate. 141; Apple Sauce, 172; 
Vanilla Sauce. 200; Hard Sauce, 250. 

Sink. 14. 

Soups, 89; Classification. Preparation. 89: 
Serving. 90; Value of Cream Soups. 
Cracker Soup. 91 ; Cream of Corn Soup, 
Potato Soup. 92; Cream of Tomato 
Soup. Cream of Asparagus. 93: Cream 
of Salmon Soup, 94. 

Steaks, 163; Chuck. 163; Porterhouse. 
164; Loin. Round. 165: Flank, 166. 

Sterilization. 139. 

Sugar Manufacture. 290. 

Sweeping and Dusting. 39. 

Table Setting and Serving, 108; Laying 
the Table, Serving. 110; Serving Three 
Course Luncheon. 112; Serving without 
a Maid, 116. 

Tapioca Cream, 150. 

Tea. 177: History, Manufacture, 178; 
Composition. 179. 

Vanilla Sauce. 209. 

Veal. 100. 

Vegetables. 45; Classification, Composi- 
tion, 45; General Rules for Cooking. 
Points to be Considered in Choosing 
the Method of Cooking, 46; White 
Potato, 47. 

Yeast. 223; Structure, 224; Method by 
Which Yeast Raises Dough, Effect of 
Heat, Experiments, 225; Kinds of 
Yeast. 220: Liquids Used in Yeast 
Batters. 227. 



20 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




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